PUG (PENGARUSUTAMAAN GENDER) SEBAGAI STRATEGI ALTERNATIF MEWUJUDKAN KESETARAAN GENDER DALAM MASYARAKAT

Keberhasilan pembangunan dan keberhasilan dalam menjalani proses historis kehidupan dalam semua tingkatan akan sangat tergantung pada peran serta laki-laki dan perempuan secara bersamaan sebagai pelaku dan pemanfaatnya. Ketidakseimbangan serta peminggiran terhadap peran serta dari salah satu elemen tersebut bisa berakibat pada ketimpangan dan ketidakadilan. Oleh karena itu, semua program pemberdayaan harus memperhatikan dan diorientasikan pada pencapaian dan optimalisasi peran yang setara antara laki-laki dan perempuan.

Kenyataan dilapangan sampai saat ini masih menunjukkan bahwa kedudukan dan peran perempuan Indonesia walaupun sudah diupayakan dengan berbagai strategi dan pendekatan belum menunjukkan hasil yang memadai  karena pendekatan pembangunan yang dikembangkan belum mempertimbangkan manfaat yang merata dan adil bagi laki-laki dan perempuan sehingga mengakibatkan terciptanya ketidaksetaraan dan ketidak adilan gender  yang lebih dikenal dengan kesenjangan gender (gender gap) yang akan mengakibatkan pula pada berbagai permasalahan gender. Indikator yang dipakai untuk melihat dan mengukur kesenjangan tersebut digunakan Gender Empowerment Measurement (GEM) dan Gender Related Development Index (GDI) yang merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari Human Development Index (HDI). Fakta ketidakadilan gender dalam masyarakat Indonesia diperkuat dengan adanya Human Development report tahun 2002 yang menunjukkan GDI Indonesia masih menempati urutan 91 dari 173 negara dan HDI Indonesia yang berada pada peringkat 110 dari 173 negara.Oleh karena itulah berbagai strategi yang dapat meningkatkan pemberdayaan perempuan terus dikembangkan seperti strategi terakhir yaitu strategi pengarusutamaan gender ( Gender Mainstreaming).

Pengarusutamaan gender (Gender Mainstreaming) adalah suatu strategi untuk mencapai kesetaraan dan keadilan gender melalui perencanaan dan penerapan kebijakan yang berperspektif gender pada organisasi dan institusi. Pengarusutamaan gender merupakan strategi alternatif bagi usaha pencepatan tercapainya kesetaraan gender karena nuansa kepekaan gender menjadi salah satu landasan dalam penyusunan dan perumusan strategi, struktur, dan sistem dari suatu organisasi atau institusi, serta menjadi bagian dari nafas budaya di dalamnya. Strategi ini merupakan strategi integrasi kesamaan gender secara sistemik ke dalam seluruh sistem dan struktur, termasuk kebijakan, program, proses dan proyek, budaya, organisasi atau sebuah agenda pandangan dan tindakan yang memprioritaskan kesamaan gender berdasarkan Inpres No 9 Tahun 2000 yaitu Presiden menginstruksikan untuk melaksanakan pengarusutamaan gender guna terselenggaranya penyusunan perencanaan, pelaksanaan, pemantauan dan evaluasi atas kebijakan dan program pembangunan nasional yang berspektif gender sesuai dengan bidang tugas dan fungsi serta kewenangan masing-masing .[1] Pelaksanaan dan implementasi PUG juga didukung oleh UUD 1945 pasal 27 ayat 1 dan UU Nomor 7 tahun 1985 mengenai segala bentuk diskriminasi

Strategi pemberdayaan ini dirancang sebagai strategi alternatif untuk melengkapi dua strategi terdahulu, Women in Development (WID) dan Gender and Development (GAD), dan dideklarasikan semenjak tahun 1995 pada Forth World Conference on Women di Beijing.[2] WID sebagai strategi pertama popular pada 1975-1985 ketika tahun-tahun itu dideklarasikan oleh PBB sebagai “Dasawarsa PBB untuk Perempuan”.[3] Sejak saat itu, hampir semua pemerintahan dunia ketiga mulai mengembangkan Kementerian Peranan Wanita, dengan fokus utama meningkatkan peran wanita dalam pembangunan. Strategi peningkatan peran wanita dalam pembangunan ini didasarkan pada suatu analisis yang lebih memfokuskan pada kaum perempuannya. Strategi ini dibangun di atas asumsi bahwa permasalahan kaum perempuan berakar pada rendahnya kualitas sumber daya perempuan itu sendiri yang menyebabkan mereka tidak mampu bersaing dengan kaum laki-laki dalam masyarakat termasuk dalam pembangunan. Analisis ini mengharuskan adanya usaha untuk menghilangkan diskriminasi yang menghalangi usaha mendidik kaum perempuan.

Akan tetapi, strategi WID banyak mendapat kritik terutama dari kelompok feminis dengan menekankan tiga asumsi dasarl, yaitu:

1.                            strategi ini diasumsikan sebagai agenda dari dunia pertama terhadap dunia ketiga

2.                            diasumsikan strategi ini memiliki bias kepentingan dari kelompok feminisme liberal yang diwakili oleh perempuan kulit putih yang dipandang tidak memiliki kepentingan dengan pembebasan para perempuan didunia ketiga

3.                            diasumsikan bahwa strategi ini lebih mengarah pada pengekangan terhadap para perempuan dan bukan merupakan upaya pembebasan.

Kritik lain yang dilancarkan untuk strattegi pemberdayaan ini adalah strategi ini lebih menekankan atau focus pada peran seseorang dan mengabaikan hubungan dan relasi social antara laki-laki dan perempuan. Sehingga strategi ini dipandang belum mampu menjamin perempuan memperoleh manfaat pembangunan.[4]

Strategi kedua muncul dengan lebih memfokuskan pada sistem, struktur, ideologi, dan budaya hidup masyarakat yang melahirkan bentuk-bentuk ketidakadilan yang dikenal dengan ketidakadilan yang bersumber pada keyakinan gender. Bagi strategi kedua ini letak persoalannya bukanlah pada kaum perempuan sebagaimana diasumsikan semula, akan tetapi pada bagaimana menghapuskan segala bentuk diskriminasi dan ketidakadilan gender. Strategi kedua ini menitikberatkan pada pemberdayaan (empowerment) dan perubahan struktur gender inilah yang dikenal dengan pendekatan Gender and Development (GAD) yang sebelumnya berubah menjadi strategi WAD (Women and Development) setelah tidak berhasilnya strategi WID. Berbeda dengan WID yang melahirkan proyek-proyek peningkatan peran perempuan seperti proyek peningkatan penghasilan perempuan dan didirikannya kementerian peranan wanita, maka puncak keberhasilan strategi kedua ini menghasilkan kebijakan global yang monumental bagi perjuangan kaum perempuan ini, yakni dengan diterimanya secara global konvensi anti segala bentuk diskriminasi terhadap kaum perempuan yang dikenal dengan CEDAW (Convention on the Elemination of all Form of Discrimination Againts Women) tersebut.

Selanjutnya dalam konferensi Nairobi tahun 1985 dibicarakan kemungkinan memasukkan perspektif gender dalam semua kebijakan negara dan pembangunan serta diperkuat konferensi Beijing 1995 dengan lahirnya platform action strategi gender mainstreaming. Dalam konferensi tersebut dibicarakan upaya mengurangi praktek diskriminasi terhadap perempuan yang kemudian melahirkan strategi ketiga yang dikenal dengan istilah Strategi Gender Mainstreaming. Strategi tersebut merupakan pematangan dari GAD yang tujuan dasarnya menjadikan gender sebagai arus utama dalam pembangunan. Sasaran utama kebijakan ini adalah kebijakan (negara), aksi (masyarakat), institusi (organisasi dan masyarakat).

Untuk melihat apakah strategi gender mainstreaming sudah diterapkan atau tidak, gender scan adalah salah satu instrumen yang dapat dipakai sebagai langkah strategis.Akses dan kontrol terhadap SDM dalam organisasi, sensitifitas gender dalam pengembangan perencanaan dan kebijakan organisasi, adanya kebutuhan strategis gender (gender need), kesamaan gender di organisasi dan pembagian kerja berdasarkan gender merupakan perangkat yang terdapat dalam gender scan. Selain itu,untuk menyusun program dan membuat kebijakan yang responsif gender harus berdasarkan data dan informasi yang akurat yang diperoleh dari proses pengolahan dan analisa tepat. Proses analisa data tersebut dikenal dengan istilah analisis gender. Ada lima jemis model analisis gender yang dikenal  di Indonesia, yaitu:

1. Model Harvard

Suatu kerangka analisis gender yang paling awal dikembangkan dimana pendekatannya berdasarkan efisiensi WID untuk melihat profil gender secara mikro dan peran gender dalam proyek pembangunan serta dalam perencanaan berbagai program kegiatan.  Kerangka analisis ini  dikenal dengan kerangka analisis Harvard. Dikembangkan pada mulanya oleh Harvard Institute For International Development yang bekerjasama dengan kantor Women In Development (WID) USAID. Perspektif yang digunakan model Harvard ini lebih tepat digunakan untuk perencanaan proyek yang lebih bersifat  ekonomis dan lebih tepat untuk perencanaan proyek daripada kebijakan karena model ini bisa menunjukkan bagian-bagian proyek yang perlu disesuaikan dengan tujuan proyek. Analisis model Harvard ini meninjau dari 4 (empat) komponen dasar antara lain:

1. Profil kegiatan, yang dianalisa dan diidentifikasi dalam profil ini beberapa parameter seperti umur (misalnya, siapa mengerjakan apa sehingga pola relasi gender dan dampak yang ditimbulkan dapat teridentifikasi melalui pemetaan pekerjaan berdasarkan umur dan jenis kelamin), alokasi waktu (menunjukkan apakah kegiatan dilakukan pada waktu tertentu seperti harian atau waktu-waktu tertentu saja), lokasi kegiatan (menunjukkan dimana kegiatan dilakukan) dan pendapatan (menunjukkan uang atau pendapatan yang dihasilkan dari suatu kegiatan)
2. Profil akses dan kontrol, dalam profil ini yang dianalisa adalah sumber-sumber yang dikuasai oleh laki-laki dan perempuan untuk melakukan suatu kegiatan serta manfaat yang didapat oleh masing-masing dari hasil kegiatan.
3. Analisis faktor, dalam profil ini yang dilihat adalah faktor-faktor dasar yang memepengaruhi dua poin diatas termasuk faktor yang menentukan pembagian kerja berdasarkan gender.
4. Analisis siklus proyek, penelaahan proyek berdasarkan data  yang diperoleh dari analisis terdahulu dengan melihat kegiatan-kegiatan yang sudah terlaksana yang bisa dipengaruhi oleh  proyek yang akan dilaksanakan.

1. Model Moser

Model analisa ini lebih mengasumsikan bahwa perencanaan gender bersifat teknis dan politis sehingga dalam proses perencanaan dan dan transformasi terdapat konflik. Ada 6 (enam) alat yang digunakan dalam perencanaan semua tingkatan dar perencanaan proyek dari level pusat sampai level daerah, antara lain:

1. Identifikasi peranan gender /Tri Peran (alat 1) yang mencakup penyusunan pembagian kerja gender dalam rumah tangga selama 24 jam.
2. Penilaian kebutuhan gender (alat 2). Alat kedua ini memetakan kebutuhan yang berbeda bagi laki-laki dan perempuan yang berbeda berdasarkan minat yang bersifat praktis dan strategis.
3. Pemisahan kontrol atas sumberdaya dan pengambilan keputusan dalam rumah tangga (alat 3). Alat ini menganalisa dan menunjukkan siapa yang mengontrol sumberdaya dalam rumah tangga termasuk siapa yang berperan sebagai pengambil keputusan dalam penggunaan sumberdaya keluarga dan bagaimana proses keputusan tersebut dibuat.
4. Penyeimbangan peran (alat 4). Alat ini menganalisa peran perempuan dalam mengelola keseimbangan antara tugas-tugas produktif, reproduktif dan publik (sosial kemasyarakatan).
5. Matriks kebijakan WID (Women in Development) dan GAD (Gender and Development). Kedua matriks tersebut memberikan kerangka untuk mengidentifikasi atau mengevaluasi pendekatan yang digunakan yang ditujukan pada tri peranan seperti disebeutkan diatas termasuk kebutuhan gender yang bersifat praktis dan strategis dalam proyek. Matriks ini dibedakan lagi kedalam lima pendekatan, yaitu: pertama, kesejahteraan. Pendekatan kesejahteraan ini bertujuan untuk mengakui peran reproduktif perempuan dengan pemenuhan kebutuhan praktis gender perempuan selain membawa perempuan kedalam pembanguanan sehingga mereka bisa mandiri dan memiliki kemampuan yang lebih baik. Kedua, Matriks keadilan. Pendekatan matriks ini bertujuan untuk memberikan keadilan bagi perempuan dengan menempatkan mereka sebagai partisipan aktif dalam pembangunan dan pemenuhan kebutuhan strategis gender serta pengakuan tri peranan perempuan. Dalam hal ini pemerintah melakukan intervensi langsung dengan pemberian otonomi politik dan ekonomi serta pengurangan ketidaksetaraan perempuan dengan laki-laki. Dengan kata lain, pendekatan ini menolak adanya subordinasi perempuan. Ketiga, anti kemiskinan.  Pendekatan ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan produktifitas perempuan miskin. Akan tetapi pendekatan ini tidak melihat kemiskinan perempuan sebagai dampak dari  subordinasi akan tetapi hanya sebagai masalah keterbelakangan. Keempat, efisiensi. Pendekatan ini merupakan pendekatan utama dalam analisa model Moser. Dalam pendekatan ini yang menjadi titik tekan adalah kontribusi ekonomi perempuan dalam kerangka pembangunan yang efisien dan efektif karena partisipasi disini dianggap sama dengan keadilan. Pendekatan ini berusaha memnuhi kebutuhan praktis gender dengan mengandalkan tri peranan dan konsep waktu yang dimiliki perempuan yang elastis dan fleksibel. Kelima, pemberdayaan. Pendekatan ini bertujuan untuk memberdayakan perempuan melalui kepercayaan diri perempuan yang lebih besar. Pendekatan ini melihat bahwa subordinasi perempuan dinilai tidak hanya karena dominasi laki-laki tetapi juga karena penindasan  kolonial dan neo-kolonial. Pendekatan ini juga mengakui tri peranan perempuan dan ada upaya pemebuhan kebutuhan praktis gender akan tetapi secara tidak langsung melalui  mobilisasi kebutuhan praktis gender dari bawah. Pendekatan ini lebih dikenal di kalangan LSM di negara ke-tiga.
6. Pelibatan perempuan dan organisasi perempuan sadar gender dalam perencanaan pembangunan (alat 6). Alat keenam ini bertujuan untuk memastikan bahwa kebutuhan praktis gender dan kebutuhan strategis gender merupakan kebutuhan-kebutuhan nyata perempuan, artinya berlawanan dengan pengertian atas kebutuhan-kebutuhan yang digabungkan kedalam proses perencanaan yang selama ini dikenal.

1. Model SWOT

Model analisa gender ini  merupakan suatu analisa manajemen melalui identifikasi secara internal mengenai kekuatan dan kelemahan dan secara eksternal mengenai peluang dan tantangan. Kedua aspek (eksternal dan internal) dipertimbangkan dalam kaitannya dengan konsep strategis dalam penyusunan program aksi, langkah-langkah atau kegiatan untuk mencapai sasaran dan tujuan kegiatan dengan cara memaksimalkan kekuatan dan peluang disamping meminimalkan kelemahan dan tantangan sehingga mampu meningkatkan efektifitas dan efisiensi dari pelaksanaan program/kegiatan. Ada beberapa langkah yang harus dilakukan dalam analisa model ini, antara lain sebagai berikut:

1. Langkah 1 adalah proses identifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan dari masalah-masalah internal kondisi yang ada saat itu serta pemberian bobot  pada kondisi yang diinginkan.
2. Langkah 2 adalah proses identifikasi peluang ancaman dan tantangan dari masalah-masalah eksternal dengan pemberian bobot pada kondisi yang dinginkan dan keadaan yang ada pada saat itu.
3. Langkah 3 adalah proses analisa korelasi kunci internal dan eksternal dengan pemberian kuadran –kuadran sebagai berikut:

• Kuadran I dengan menciptakan strategi “agresif” yang mengembangkan kekuatan-kekuatan yang dimiliki untuk memanfaatkan peluang yang ada.
• Kuadran II dengan menciptakan strategi “diversifikasi” yang mengembangkan dan menggunakan kekuatan atau potensi untuk meminimalisasi atau mengatasi ancaman atau tantangan.
• Kuadran III dengan menciptakan strategi yang bertujuan untuk meminimalisasi kelemahan-kelemahan dan memanfaatkan peluang salah satu caranya dengan meninjau ulang kegiatan-kegiatan

1. langkah 4 adalah menyusun rencana aksi  yang meliputi kegiatan yang responsif gender melalui cara sebagai berikut:
   • Menyusun tindakan berdasarkan konsep yang bernilai strategis
   • Tindakan yang disusun diurutkan dari awal sampai akhir
   • Menetapkan tujuan atau sasaran dari setiap langkah dan kegiatan.
   • Menentukan penanggung jawab dari setiap tindakan atau langkah yang diambil
   • Menetapkan waktu dari setiap langkah atau tindakan
   • Menetapkan pelaksanaan dari setiap kegiatan
   • Menetapkan tiga indikator penilaian
2. Langkah 5 adalah penjadwalan atau penyusunan sketsa yang mennujukkan rangkaian kegiataan khusus dari aspek pelaksanaan dan rencana kegiatan.

1. Model analisa GAP (gender analysis pathway)

Model atau kerangka analisa gender GAP merupakan suatu alat analisis gender yang dapat digunakan untuk membantu perencanaan dan pelaksanaan dari kegiatan pengarusutamaan gender melalui perencanaan kebijakan/program/proyek dari kegiatan pembangunan. Model analisis ini menekankan pada empat aspek penting yang meliputi aspek, peran, kontrol dan manfaat.

Model ini memiliki kekuatan untuk menghasilkan program atau kegiatan yang responsif gender  dengan metodologi yang sederhana dan penggunaan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif secara bersamaan serta adanya peluang untuk memonitor dan mengevaluasi setiap langkah. Sedangkan kelemahan model ini adalah adanya ketergantungan pada data terpilah menurut jenis kelamin, dan biasanya hanya digunakan pada kebijakan atau proyek formal yang biasanya didanai oleh pemerintah dan dibatasi pada aspek perencanaannya.

Model analisa ini memiliki alur kerja analisis gender yang meliputi lima tahap sebagai berikut:

1. Tahap I : analisa kebijakan yang responsif gender
2. Tahap II:formulasi kebijakan yang responsif gender
3. Tahap III: Rencana aksi yang responsif gender
4. Tahap IV: pelaksanaan kegiatan yang sudah disusun
5. Tahap V : monitoring dan evaluasi dari  setiap tahap dan langkah yang diambil.

e. Model PROBA (problem based approach)

Model analisa gender ini adalah suatu teknik untuk menganalisa kesenjangan gender (gender gap). Dengan demikian analisa gender dimulai dengan melihat kesenjangan gender yang selanjutnya dibentuk  GFP (gender focal point) dan POKJA PUG dalam tataran pelaksanaan, monitoring dan evaluasi kegiatan pengarusutamaan gender. Model analisa ini juga dilengkapi dengan indikator-indikator seperti input, output, outcome dan proses.

Model Proba terdiri dari 5 tahap yang secara keseluruhan meliputi 12 langkah(hanya tahap-tahap yang akan disebutkan dalam makalah ini) sebagai berikut:

1. Tahap I merupakan tahap analisa gender yang bertujuan untuk merumuskan masalah gender yang terjadi disetiap instansi atau wilayah.
2. Tahap II merupakan tahap analisa kebijakan dari kegiatan atau proyek serta kebijakan yang menyebabkan terjadinya kesenjangan gender melalui proses identifikasi, klarifikasi dan penetapan tujuan strategis untuk mewujudkan kondisi yang netral gender.
3. Tahap III merupakan tahap formulasi kebijakan baru yaitu dengan cara mereformulasi kegiatan/proyek/kebijakan yang bias gender menjadi responsif gender
4. Tahap IV merupakan tahap penyusunan rencana aksi atau menyusun kegiatan yang akan dilakasanakan.
5. Tahap V merupakan tahap perencanaan monitoring dan evaluasi dalam bentuk matrik monitoring program dengan menetapkan indikator kerja, membentuk focal point dan pokja PUG sekaligus menyusun mekanisme operasional.
6. Tahap VI merupakan tahap perencanaan monitoring dan evaluasi dalam bentuk matrik monitoring program sekaligus menetapkan indikator kinerja.

Kelima model analisis gender yang telah dipaparkan diatas digunakan untuk menela’ah berbagai kegiatan/proyek/kebijakan yang menyebabkan terjadinya berbagai kesenjangan gender yang terjadi dalam masyarakat. Oleh karena itulah, kerjasama antara perencana kebijakan, organisasi yang concern terhadap isu-isu perempuan dan gender dan terutama antar perempuan akan membantu percepatan dari perwujudan kesetaraan dan keadilan gender. Akan tetapi harus diperhatikan juga bahwa relasi sosial antara laki-laki juga penting dalam menyusun semua kebijakan. Dengan kata lain, keterlibatan perempuan dalam pembangunan menjadi penting karena pengalaman telah menunjukkan bahwa pembangunan yang bersifat dikotomis dengan lebih menekankan pada salah satu jenis kelamin kurang menunjukkan hasil yang signifikan.

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Sumber bacaan

Kementrian Negara pemberdayaan Perempuan, Modul Fasilitasi Pelatihan Pengarusutamaan Gender Bagi Fasilitator kategori Pengembangan, Jakarta: Kementrian Negara Pemberdayaan Perempuan, 2006

Mansour, Fakih, Gender dan Transformasi Sosial, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1996

Muawanah, Elfi dan Rifa Hidayah, Menuju Kesetaraan Gender, Malang: Kutub Minar, 2006

Tim Penulis PSW UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Pengantar Kajian Gender, Jakarta: PSW UIN SYAHID, 2003

Tim Peneliti PSG UIN Malang, Baseline Study dan Analisis institusional Kesetaraan Gender Di UIN Malang, Malang: Lemlit UIN Malang, 2006

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[1] European Women and Sport, 2002. A New Strategy : Gender Mainstreaming, Paper presented by Teresa Rees at the 5th European Women and Sport Conference in Berlin, April 18th-21st 2002 Hotel Crowne Plaza, Berlin

[2] Mansour Fakih, “Gender Mainstreaming Strategi Mutakhir Gerakan Perempuan” dalam Gender dan Perubahan Organisasi, Menjembatani Kesenjangan Antara Kebijakan dan Praktek, Terj. Omi Intan Naomi, (Yogyakarta: INSIST, 1999), h. xxxiii

[3] Ratna Saptari & Brigitte Halzner, Perempuan Kerja dan Perubahan Sosial, (Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti, 1997), h. 154

4. Junaidatul Munawwarah dalam “Pengantar Kajian Gender” ( PSW UIN Syarif Hidayatullah dengan DEPAG RI-CIDA, Jakarta: 2003) h. 181-182

ISLAM INDONESIA AND DEMOCRACY; A CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PLURALISM OF MOSLEM’S POLITICS (A Review on Robert W. Hefner’s Examination on democratization in an age of religious revitalization)

 

 

 

 

Introduction

The compatibility of Islam with democracy lies on the puzzle of political theories over decades. Islam as a religious doctrine is questioned whether it can promote democracy values or not since the historical facts shows less evidences for its success to go along with democracy as a sort of political and governmental system. The core problem of the puzzle and debate is related with people’s understanding on Islam itself as well as its adherents’.  Conversely, this religion pronounces its compatible value of the doctrines with certain places and certain times. Consequently, it can compromise with any kinds of facts or systems as long as they are in line with its basic values namely promoting human rights and give happiness to human beings.

……………………Abu el fadl

Another interesting discussion on Islam is that it emerges differently in different places with different features of Islam. The question, then, could Indonesian Islam promotes democracy including its values to be implemented in this country since the majority of the citizens are Moslems? Therefore, this paper addresses the issue on Islam in Indonesian context in relation with democratization process. The main purpose is to investigate Robert W. Hefner’s examination on the relationship of Islam and  democratization in Indonesia that he tends to counter some political theories’ about democracy including westerners’ doubt of the emergence of democracy in majority-Moslem nation or in Moslem world.[1]

Hefner comes with his deep discussion in his book “civil Islam” in portraying the role of Islam as well as the role of intellectual Moslem to promote democratization process. To borrow his phrase notion ” democratization in an age of religious revitalization”, he emphasizes the belief on the compatibility of Islam with this kind of political system, democracy which is commonly believed as product of modernization and secularization in western countries. As his point of departure is that he theorizes Muslim politics, to restate his statement, which is not monolithic but plural.[2] In addition, this anthropologist pointed out the precedent of civic seedling in Indonesia, which reveals the fact of the diversity of Indonesian Moslems’ ideas how to be a Muslim, and he “pronounces” this phenomenon as cultural pluralism.[3] He theorized, also, that democracy can develop in Indonesia. The reason why democracy is hard to exist in this country is that the civil state, as another component of democracy, did not exist during certain periods of Indonesian political life. From this standpoint he, then, points out the intellectual Moslems whose democrat views that tends to have liberal spirit in understanding their Islam and performing their civil concept. To Hefner, those Moslem democrats are civil democratic who play crucial role in democratization process. However, the process of democratization process faces their obstacle to be really achieved by Indonesia is due to the lack of another basic factor of democracy namely civil state as aforementioned earlier. He discusses the issue of the state and political regime in Indonesia periodically from the early new order until the fall of Soeharto’s regime.

Another example of the less existence of ………………..

Banten case is that local government supported by the Dutch monopolized the economy and restructured the political system in form of modernization. That action repressed the people (especially peasant group) economically and politically. What is more, most of them were tarekat followers. With the support from the Sufis, as their religious leaders that they believed and respected much, including the ideology they hold that the Dutch were infidels, they moved to revolt in 1888. Although it just lasted only five days, it explained that ideology will lead a group to act as well as showing that Sufis concern moved to political arena.

In general, some cases related to some tarekats in politics reveal a significant transition of Sufism and tarekats role and their initial concerns. However, it is not to say that they change their original orientation. It is just a case of the need of condition to broaden the basic aims. This also copes with my hypothesis that Sufis play different role in each time in accord with my first basic inquiries on this matter explaining why they change their original orientation in certain time. Another thing left is the power of Sufis and tarekat leaders in mobilizing people or their followers should be also considered.  I am not saying that, the followers fully obeyed their tarekat leaders but the teachings that they taught gradually became an ideology supported by the charismatic figure of the leaders. In addition, the alliance that they can work together was the Sufis group in opposing the regime in which most of the followers were mass-based such as workers and peasants. In fact, their total number was larger than government members or as equal as the colonial’s.

Basically, Hefner’s work of his book “civil Islam” is much debated in various angles to see whether his argument on Islam and democracy can be put into account as an interesting evidence of Moslem world in term of its political system. To me, his thesis of Islam Indonesia can be enriched by also putting the feature of Islam in Indonesia in the discussion framework that will be related to grass root phenomena in relation with democracy. Those two main themes will be discussed further in this paper. However, it is important to emphasize earlier that the culture seedling of Indonesia and the unique feature of Islam in this Moslem- majority nation play role in promoting democracy besides the Moslem democrats’ role. Therefore, to overview the feature of Islam in Indonesia including Indonesian original culture should not be overlooked as “left hole” to be discussed.

 

Islam in Indonesia

It is interesting to discuss Islam in Indonesia, as there were so many religions and beliefs such as Hindu, Buddhist and other mystical beliefs already existed long before Islam came. Those systems of beliefs had a greater role in forming social economic as well as political structure in Indonesia.[4] Islam found the reality of diversity of system and socio-cultural tradition in Indonesia. What is more, people in different tribes hold different spiritual beliefs supporting by their geographical location of living. As a consequence, Islam had to pass trough a long process to islamized Indonesia. Then, the face of Islam tended to be inclusive in islamization process, which could compromise with local tradition to avoid the resistance of that tradition. This sort of religion came with its domestication process. What domestication means here is that Islam tried to accommodate local culture. Nonetheless, it is not to say that Islam did not generate conflict as the fact also shows that there was a contradiction between Islam as a great tradition and Islam as little tradition (Islam local). Still, the domestication of Islam resulted in the more acceptable feature of Islam for local people with their original culture.

Then, the spreading process of Islam in Indonesia shows some important points. First, the assimilation and acculturation process of Islam with original culture constitutes an identity for Islam Indonesia as a new comer religion. That “identity” was inspired  mostly by local value of “tolerance” and creates a “ new configuration” between middle east religion and a local religion with its local culture without abandoning the original (sacred) message of Islam. Second, Islam is not a dominant religion in whole Indonesian parts although it has majority of adherents. Islam still left some areas for other religions to developed. Some areas such as Manado which becomes Christian consentration as well as Bali for Hindust, and so forth. This phenomena reveals a fact of “harmony’ with tolerance as the base.[5]

Despite the success of Islam in accomodating local culture, it also has another consequence of interpretation of its doctrine. To point out Clifford Geertz’s thesis about the three variants of moslem Indonesia (priyayi, santri, abangan), he  draws into the conclusion that there is different conversion way of into Islam in Indonesia.  Inspiried by Weber’s thought, he tried to look at the relationship between religion and social action. He proposes a “layer cake” theory to describe  phenomena above. It is to say that the feature of Islam Indonesia just changes some terms but Indonesian Islam is, basically, still the original culture.

Although Gertz’s thesis above is already debated by some scholars, it is still important to look how in general Indonesian Islam. It leads to a “rough” assumption on the possibility of various forms of Moslems’ attitude toward Indonesia including its political sphere. It is not to say, however,that Islam Indonesia is less pious than in other moslem worlds. It just another phenomena of Islam’s  message that is compatible with different conditions in any time. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that, in line with Hefner’s view, Islam may not an obstacle for democracy to grow particularly Islam Indonesia.

From that standpoint, we have to consider another consequence of this Islam above. The conflict within moslems groups emerge in responding political form of Indonesia. As a matter of fact , There is an attempt proposed by certain groups which to purify Islam to search the authenticity of Islam along with the emergence of Islamic radical movement. This movement aims to integrate the diversity of Islam’s understanding  into one frame. The main goal is to put Islam in the same level of one social system. This movement, to me, commonly represent some group of moslems from grass root level. The movements shows their radicalism. The orientation is to implement the fundamentalist islamic doctrines. Take for example, Ikhwanul Muslimin movement, Hizbut Tahrir, Jama’ati Islami and the alike. The basic foundations of their movement are Al-Qur’an and Hadist that are interpreted literally. Some of the leaders are commonly coming from pesantren leaders and not political figures. Nevertheless,  recent fact shows the contradiction feature of those movement. The case of new paradigm of Ikhwanul Muslimin movement, in my view, supports hefner’s study about democracy in Indonesia. The main reason of democracy problem is the civil state in Indonesian context. The recent leader of Ikhwanul Muslimin, Sayyid Hussein Al-Habsy, stated that uncivil political regime from new order era up to present tend to be dicrimininative toward Islam communities. He raised a real proof of RMS case and Jama’ah Islamiyah case. The regime discriminates Jama’ah Islamiyah and put its case as the object of interest. By contrast, the  regime tended to be “softener” toward RMS. The leader of this movement is easy to escape from the case and from Indonesia. This discrimination, according to Sayyid Al-Habsyi, triggers the discriminated group to build a social movement. He also mentions that It is not Islamic group which wants to oppose the government and the existed political system but the regime “creates” it.[6] That fact of grass root movements tends to be overlooked by Hefner to support his finding on Islam and democracy.

In addition, historical evidence that “ islamic purification movement” in the late 18s was mostly related to the concern of moslems condition. Ahmad Syafi’I Ma’ ar if   in his book “Islam dan Masalah Kenegaraan” raises an interesting evidence of one Islamic movement that is Muhammadiyah organization. Motored by Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan (1868- 1923), this organization struggled for reform and revival of education system in Islam. Ma’arif, also, adds the internal factors of the Muhammadiyah emergence. First, the low level of moslem’s education in Indonesia in all aspects of life. Then, Serious condition of moslem indonesians who commonly live in poverty condition but in rich country. Lasty, The old-fashioned  system of Islamic education as represented by pesantren education system.[7]

Furthermore, the conflict and debate between the concept of nation and political system of Indonesia is dominated by intellectuals and those who will take the benefit from it.

What should be emphasized in this part of discussion is that the diversity of understanding Islam and the feature of Islam itself open a great chance to any political systems as long as they promote social welfare and human rights.

 

Grass root phenomena

It is noteworthy, also, to consider the phenomena within certain societies in the grass root level in terms of their value and culture. To paraphrase Herbert Feith’s statement in Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions, Indonesia still in the process of searching and forming its political culture in which the process is influenced by sub-culture of of politics and religion.[8] Feith, then, adds his assumption that dominant culture is “Javanese aristocracy” and “entrepreneurship”. The explanation of that argument is the high number of politics elites in national level are Javanese as well as the cetral location of govermental system is in Java island.

The most crucial factor, in cultural level, is the internal attitude of Javanese people which is rooted in their personality. They tend to avoid to make conflict or clash with other communities although, in the same time, they are easily to be hurted their feeling. They also insist the concept of polity and being civilized on their behavior since they were children. Those rooted concept emerge as “ natural character” in form of controlled emotion. What is more, they try not to make their behavior rough toward other people. I am not saying, however, that other societies are not likely have the same attitude as Javanese have. It is just one phenomenon of Grass root personal behavior in one community.

Alfian, quoted by Masykury Abdillah, potrays an important value in some communities in  Indonesian rural areas including javanese rural society. Indonesian communities mostly develop an openness and freedom value. According to him, these values can be seen in rural communities’ meeting where each person can express their feelings and ideas freely and openly. The process of making decision passes through an openess, natural and dialog system. This concept is well-known as, recently, “consultation and making decision” (Musyawarah-Mufakat). [9] This condition runs well is due to the homogenious condition of the people in terms of family relationship where the people commonly are relatives. It seems to me that it reflects the democracy system in J. J. Rosseau’ s perspective with his concept of direct system of democracy. Nonetheless, what I emphasize ,here, is not the system but the basic values of grass root society which can support democracy in Indonesia.

Furthermore, ordinary people in this level of social structure are likely to choose the the peacefull life compare to chaotic condition in whatever political condition they are. They will raise an issue of conflict if the government “ creates” the causes. A good example is ethnic conflict between Madurese and dayak community in Kalimantan island. This booming chaos is still in question to what real cause it emerges since the two different community had lived together for years. Some people argue that the government “ creates” the conflict for political interest of some elites politics. On the other hand, some others suspect that it was communal conflict. The main point is that the long period of Madurese and Dayak community story proves a harmony of neighborhood untill the “black manufactured period” came. Still, I assume that the original culture of some communities and ethnic group in Indonesia affiliates to the value of democracy that is recognizing other people’ liberty reflected by tolerance value.

 

Conclusion

From the discussion of the feature of Islam Indonesia and grass root phenomena, we can go to the brief conclusion on Hefner’s work of “Civil Islam”. To restate his main thesis about democratization in Indonesia, he pointed out that democracy can emerge in Indonesia since it already had civic precedence regarding its civil society and civic culture power. Furthermore, to him, what lacks of Indonesia to implement democracy is civil state. Therefore, Hefner’s thesis is in line with my argument on this issue. Nevertheless, I also criticizes that Hefner ignore the reality of grass root phenomena and Islam Indonesia. In these two Issues, he did not discuss further and give a gap that I can discuss to support his thesis. In conclusion, democracy in Indonesia has a great chance to grow although it is a Moslem majority nation that people in doubt with it. With the power of civic culture and civil Islam supporting by civil state, democratization is possible for Indonesia although we cannot deny the fact of conflict throughout the process.

 

 

 

 

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[1] Robert W. Hefner, Civil Islam, Muslim and democratization in Indonesia, 2000,Princeton University, United Kingdom,p. 6

[2] ibid

[3] ibid

[4] Abdillah, Masykury, demokrasi di Pesimpangan  Makna ,(trans. Edition), 1999, Pt. Tiara Wacana, Yogyakarta.

[5] Najib, Ala’I, “Islam Indonesia dalam Sorotan Dunia”Perta Journal, vol.VI/no. 02/2003

[6] Extracted from radio interview between Sayyid Husein Al-Habsyi and MS3 FM  Jakarta Wednesday, 28^th April 2004

[7] Ahmad Syafi’I MA’arif in mAsykury Abdillah, op cit

[8] ibid, p. 198

[9] ibid, p. 199

PEREMPUAN DALAM BINGKAI KONFLIK DAN HAM

Indonesia dalam beberapa tahun ini dihadapkan pada berbagai rentetan masalah dan konflik sosial. Ironisnya, dalam banyak kasus konflik sosial, perempuan selalu menjadi korban yang paling memprihatinkan, baik dalam bentuk pelecehan, kekerasan maupun pemerkosaan yang pada dasarnya merupakan suatu perwujudan dari kekerasan berbasis gender.

Peristiwa Mei 1998 adalah salah satu contoh nyata lainnya dimana perempuan mengalami berbagai jenis diskriminasi (multiple discrimination) yang berujung pada pelecehan dan kekerasan. Contoh lainnya adalah nasib buruh migrant perempuan terutama sejak krisis moneter 1997 yang melanda bangsa Indonesia, dimana semakin banyak perempuan yang menempati posisi yang termiskinkan (Feminization of poverty) dikantong-kantong kemiskinan yang ada. Akibatnya banyak perempuan menjadi pencari nafkah utama bagi keluarganya dengan menjadi buruh migrant yang rentan terhadap eksploitasi dan kekerasan terhadap perempuan seperti menimpa pada TKW. Belum lagi perdagangan perempuan yang semakin marak serta kesengsaraan perempuan pengungsi akibat bencana bencana alam seperti badai tsunami pada tanggal 26 Desember 2004

Berbagai hambatan dan ancaman kekerasan, dalam situasi konflik maupun pemulihan konflik, yang sewaktu-waktu bisa terjadi, masih ada kelompok perempuan yang tetap berupaya menggalang solidaritas sebagai perekat bagi para perempuan untuk mewujudkan solidaritas sesama perempuan. Perempuan di Aceh melakukan begitu banyak berperan pada masa konflik seperti menjemput mayat para suami atau laki-laki yang tewas ketika dirumah sakit atau tempat-tempat ditemukan mayat sambil melakukan ritual keagamaan, mendukung secara spiritual maupun materiil disamping harus tetap tinggal ditempat mereka untuk melanjutkan setelah hidup para suami yang pergi meninggalkan desa, meninggal, hilang atau sengaja meninggalkan desa dengan alasan konflik dan keamanan.

Dalam situasi seperti diatas, fungsi perempuan yang semula dikonstruk sebagai ibu rumah tangga dan pencari nafkah tambahan (jika diperlukan), berubah menjadi kepala keluarga. Bahkan lebih jauh lagi, di beberapa desa para perempuan mengorganisir diri dalam sebuah kelompok untuk berbagi pengalaman dan menggali potensi. Dalam kasus konflik  di Aceh, kelompok perempuan seperti tersebut diatas dinamakan kelompok “Peka”. Perempuan dalam situasi seperti itu sangat perduli dan antusias serta konsisten  untuk berbagi pengalaman  yang selanjutnya mengarah pada penggagasan konsep, persiapan serta pelaksanaan trauma healing yang berbasis komunitas.

Walaupun perempuan sudah melakukan tindakan nyata dalam proses rekonsiliasi maupun saat terjadi konflik, peran mereka sering dinafikan bahkan mereka tidak pernah dilibatkan dalam forum-forum resmi rekonsiliasi yang pernah digagas oleh berbagai pihak. Hal itu tidak lebih hanya disebabkan oleh pandangan bahwa mereka adalah orang desa dan perempuan sehingga kedudukan mereka dalam forum-forum resmi tidak dianggap penting dan layak untuk didengar pendapatnya tentang rekonsiliasi dan perdamaian. Pada kenyataannya upaya pemulihan dan rekonsiliasi sudah dijalankan oleh para perempuan secara baik walaupun masih dalam lingkup dan lingkungan yang lebih kecil walaupun mereka tidak pernah mengucapkan kata – kata “healing” dan “recovery”.

HAM adalah salah satu alat yang diharapkan mampu “membentengi” perempuan dari segala tindak kekerasan, diskriminasi dan berbagai hal yang tidak menguntungkan seperti yang telah dicontohkan diatas bagi perempuan. Akan tetapi, HAM pada tataran operasional juga memiliki permasalahan karena ia dihadapkan pada kepentingan-kepentingan akibat perbedaan perspektif antara Negara-negara Maju dan Negara yang berkembang. Bagi negara-negara maju, HAM harus berlaku secara mutlak dan universal sebab HAM melekat pada manusia karena ia adalah manusia  bukan karena cirinya yang bersifat regional dan kultural yang beranggapan bahwa penerapan HAM harus mempertimbangkan perbedaan budaya, adat istiadat, hukum, kepercayaan agama, pandangan politik dan nilai-nilai kebangsaan suatu bangsa. Sehingga dalam menjabarkan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan HAM berikut implementasinya harus menyesuaikan dengan kondisi masing-masing Negara.

Perdebatan tentang artikulasi makna dan implementasi HAM di Indonesia masih diwarnai konsensus tumpang tindih lintas budaya dan agama. Sementara di sisi lain struktur budaya dan kesadaran teologis umat ketika dibenturkan dengan pola relasi penanganan HAM antara laki-laki dan perempuan juga memunculkan persoalan yang lebih kompleks berkaitan dengan keadilan dan kesetaraan gender yang berkaitan dengan keadilan dan kesetaraan gender yang perlu mendapatkan solusi alternatif secara kontekstual. Dengan kata lain, perempuan masih membutuhkan perjuangan panjang untuk bisa ditempatkan sebagaimana mestinya seperti laki-laki diperlakukan tanpa kekerasan dan penuh penghormatan selayaknya sebagai manusia.

 

 

ilmu budaya dasar

BAB II

A.TUJUAN PEMBELAJARAN UMUM

Menjelaskan  konsep dan pengertian, bentuk atau wujud serta unsur-unsur yang membentuk budaya (kebudayaan)

B. MATERI POKOK

1. Pengertian Budaya (Kebudayaan)

2. Bentuk atau Wujud Budaya (kebudayaa)

3. Unsur-Unsur Budaya (Kebudayaan)

C. URAIAN MATERI

1. Pengertian / Definisi Budaya (Kebudayaan)

Banyak teori mengenai definisi budaya atau kebudayaan yang diajukan oleh para sarjana ilmu sosial dengan berbagai rumusan serta batasan-batasan konsep tentang kebudayaan itu sendiri. Budaya atau yang disebut dengan kebudayaan secara etimologi dalam konteks  bahasa Indonesia berasal dari bahasa Sansakerta yaitu kata “Buddhayah” yang merupakan bentuk jamak dari kata Buddhi yang berarti budi atau akal. Sedangkan dalam bahasa Inggris, budaya atau kebudayaan disebut dengan culture (atau yang seringkali diterjemahkan sebagai “kultur” dalam bahasa Indonesia). Kata culture sendiri berasal dari bahasa latin “colere” yang berarti mengolah (bertani atau mengolah tanah) atau mengerjakan. Oleh karena itulah, seringkali budaya atau kebudayaan dimaknai sebagai aktifitas manusia yang berhubungan dengan alam sebagai upaya dari suatu perubahan manusia dan lingkungannya. Kebudayaan juga seringkali disebut atau  disamakan dengan peradaban yang memiliki pengertian lebih luas lagi seperti yang pengertian yang diajukan oleh E. B. Taylor (1987) bahwa kebudayaan atau peradaban meliputi pengetahuan, kepercayaan, seni, moral hukum, adat istiadat dan pembawaan lain yang diperoleh dari anggota masyarakat yang terbentuk dari pemahaman suatu bangsa terhadap semua hal tersebut.

Berbeda dengan apa yang dikemukakan oleh Koentjoroningrat             (Soelaeman, 2001) bahwa dalam kerangka ilmu antropologi budaya, pengertian budaya dan kebudayaan adalah sama. Akan tetapi ada pendapat lain yang mengatakan bahwa budaya dan kebudayaan harus didefinisikan secara berbeda karena budaya merupakan kata majemuk dari Buddhi dengan makna budi atau akal. Dengan demikian, budaya merupakan budi yang berupa cipta, rasa maupun karsa.sedang kebudayaan pengertiannya lebih pada bentuk atau hasil dari cipta, rasa dan karsa tersebut (Prasetya, dkk., 1991). Dengan demikian, budaya harus dibedakan pemaknaannya dengan melihat unsur tata bahasa dan arti dasarnya dimana budaya merupakan “agen” yang menghasilkan suatu bentuk atau wujud yang disebut dengan kebudayaan.

Mengenai definisi atau pengertian budaya atau kebudayaan secara terminology, para ahli antropologi mencoba menawarkan konsep seperti yang diteorikan oleh R. Linton (Prasetya dkk, 1991) yang mengatakan bahwa “kebudayaan merupakan bentuk konfigurasi dari perilaku yang dipelajari dan dibentuk dimana unsur-unsur pembentuknya dilegitimasi serta diteruskan secara turun temurun dari satu generasi ke generasi yang lain dalam suatu masyarakat tertentu. Dalam kalimat yang lain, Koentjoroningrat mendefinisikan “kebudayaan” dalam kerangka disiplin ilmu antropologi sebagai keseluruhan dari sistem gagasan dan rasa, tindakan, serta hasil karya manusia melalui proses kehidupan bermasyarakat dan menjadi bagian dari kehidupan seseorang tersebut. Dalam konsep ini, kebudayaan dapat difahami sebagai tindakan seseorang sebagai suatu bentuk refleksi dari naluri dalam bentuk suatu tindakan.

Definisi lain dikemukakan oleh seorang Antropolog, M. Keesing (1981), yang lebih menekankan pada pemahaman budaya (lebih pada penggunaan kata budaya) sebagai suatu pola sikap dari suatu kelompok masyarakat. Pendapat ini sejalan dengan pendapat para antropolog lain yang memberikan konsep budaya sebagai suatu system ide yang direfleksikan dalam bentuk prilaku yang disepakati bersama dalam sebuah komunitas yang berakar dari seluruh pengetahuan, kepercayaan, moral, hukum yang berlaku dalam masyarakat tersebut (Taylor, 1981 dan Linton 1940).

Dalam hal ini, Keesing lebih lanjut menjelaskan bahwa budaya sebagai sebuah system ide (ideational system) merupakan sebuah system konsep dan aturan serta makna yang difahami serta dipelajari yang kemudian diekspresikan kedalam suatu bentuk perilaku. Dengan demikian, budaya menurut Antropog ini lebih pada apa yang dipelajari oleh seseorang dan bukan pada apa yang seseorang lakukakan dan hasilkan. Dengan kata lain, Keesing menekankan bahwa budaya merupakan suatu proses belajar dan berinteraksi dalam konteks sistem ide yang berlaku dan dapat diterima oleh suatu komunitas. Dalam proses tersebut seseorang belajar untuk memahami apa yang mereka pikirkan, rasakan dan kemudian memutuskan apa yang harus dilakukan dan apa dampaknya dari apa yang sudah dilakukan. System ide tersebutlah yang akan menjadi “pemandu” seseorang dalam proses “belajar” tersebut. Hasil dari proses belajar tersebut yang berwujud suatu bentuk prilaku itulah yang kemudian dikatakan sebagai “budaya” dalam kerangka para ilmuwan antropologi seperti Robert M. Keesing.

Dari beberapa definisi yang sudah dipaparkan diatas, terlepas dari perbedaaan penggunaan serta pemahaman antara budaya dan kebudayaan, ada tiga hal yang dapat disimpulkan berkaitan dengan definisi budaya secara umum, yaitu:

a. Budaya merupakan suatu sistem ide yang membantu seseorang untuk belajar dan melakukan suatu proses untuk menghasilkan perilaku yang dapat diterima dalam suatu komunitas tertentu dan dilakukan secara terus menerus atau turun temurun

b. Budaya memiliki beberapa unsur penting yang mencakup nilai, moral, kepercayaan dan hukum yang dapat dijadikan “legitimasi” bagi perilaku seseorang

c. Budaya merupakan “agen” yang merupakan perwujudan dari rasa, cipta dan karsa dari suatu komunitas yang diterima maupun dilaksanakan secara bersama oleh komunitas tersebut.

 

2. Wujud / Bentuk Budaya (Kebudayaan)

Menurut Soelaeman (2001, 22) dalam bukunya ” Ilmu Budaya Dasar” mengemukakan bahwa kebudayaan mempunyai tiga wujud sebagai berikut:

a.       Sistem budaya yang meliputi gagasan, konsep dan pikiran manusia. Wujud system budaya ini bersifat abstrak dan pusatnya terdapat pada pikiran-pikiran manusia yang terlibat dalam system gagasan tersebut. Sistem ide muncul dari ide dan gagasan dari sekumpulan manusia yang hidup bersama. Seluruh gagasan dan pikiran tersebut tidak berdiri sendiri dan terlepas satu sama lain. Akan tetapi kesemua itu saling berkaitan dan bersifat stabil dan terus menerus karena dilandasi oleh asas-asas saling berhubungan erat dan bisa diterima oleh orang-orang yang terlibat didalamnya. Hal ini ditegaskan oleh Koentjoroningrat (1959) sebagai suatu system yang disebut dengan adat istiadat dalam konteks Indonesia yang mencakup  system nilai budaya, system norma dan seluruh norma (termasuk  norma agama) menurut pranata-pranata yang berlaku pada suatu masyarakat tertentu.

 

Wujud kebudayaan pertama ini berfungsi sebagai suatu system budaya dimana seorang individu sebagai bagian dari suatu masyarakat mampu mempelajari berbagai perilaku, pikiran dan tindakan yang sesuai dengan norma-norma (yang terdapat dalam adapt istiadat) yang berlaku melalui proses pembelajaran yang bersifat pembudayaan atau yang disebut dengan institutionalization. Proses pembudayaan ini dapat dimulai dari lingkungan terdekat seperti keluarga dimana seorang individu dapat melihat dan meniru secara langsung dari sistem sosial yang berlaku dalam keluarga melalui proses interaksi. Selanjutnya, proses tersebut dilakukan dengan lingkungan diluar rumah seperti lingkungan sekitarnya. Melalui proses ini, motivasi individu untuk meniru, memantapkan serta menginternalisasi semua norma yang berlaku kedalam pribadi dan perilaku  menjadi suatu yang dibudayakan.

Sebagai suatu sistem ide yang berlaku dalam suatu kelompok masyarakat tertentu, sistem ini tidak memiliki batas akhir berlakunya suatu kebudayaan karena ia akan terus berkembang dan disempurnakan seiring dengan perkembangan nilai (kebaikan, kebenaran maupun keindahan ) yang berlaku dan terus berkembang dari masa ke masa. Inilah yang disebut dengan kebudayaan subjektif. Sedangkan, penunjang lain dari proses perkembangan suatu budaya adalah nilai yang stabil yang diperoleh dari interaksi dan dialog baik oleh manusia dengan alam maupun lintas kebudayaan sehingga menjadi suatu yang bersifat “kebenaran” yang sudah diujicobakan dan diproyeksikan oleh manusia dan berlaku dalam suatu kelompok masyarakat.

b.      Sistem sosial yang meliputi berbagai aktifitas manusia yang saling berinteraksi. Wujud kebudayaan yang satu ini berkaitan erat dengan sistem budaya dan bersifat konkret dimana seluruh aktifitas manusia dapat diamanati dan dicermati. Selain itu, pola dan bentuk dari aktifitas dalam sebuah sistem sosial ini dibentuk dari gagasan dan pikiran serta konsep dari manusia yang merupakan bagian dari wujud budaya yang pertama (sistem budaya). Hal inilah yang menyebabkan sistem sosial terikat erat dengan sistem budaya dimana manusia-manusia dalam sebuah sistem sosial saling berinteraksi (mengemukakan pikiran, gagasan dan konsep) dan mencapai kesepakatan bersama dalam hal penerimaan maupun penolakan dari gagasan yang terefleksikan dalam aktifitas sehingga bisa menjadi bagian dan mendapat tempat dalam suatu sistem budaya.

Sistem sosial ini dapat berfungsi sebagai alat analisis realitas sosial yang bisa menggambarkan kelompok-kelompok manusia dan organisasi-organisasi sosial yang ada yang melibatkan pola-pola perilaku baik perilaku yang bersifat relatif statis dan tidak mudah berubah serta perilaku yang bersifat statis dan tidak berubah. Pola relasi yang dianalisa tidak hanya bersifat individu maupun perseorangan tapi relasi individu dengan kelompok seperti individu dengan individu lain dalam sebuah keluarga, organisasi serta masyarakat luas. Soelaeman (1991:28) menambahkan bahwa suatu sistem sosial memiliki 10 unsur utama yang membentuk sistem sosial tersebut serta dapat digunakan sebagai alat analisa pola relasi serta proses “institusionalisasi” dalam suatu sistem sosial dalam skala makro (sistem sosial yang lebih besar). Adapun unsur-unsur tersebut antara lain meliputi:

a.       Keyakinan (belief) yang berasal dari pengetahuan

b.      Perasaan

c.       Tujuan yang ingin dicapai

d.      Norma yang berlaku

e.       Status atau peran

f.       Posisi

g.      Kekuasaan (pengaruh)

h.      Sangsi

i.        Fasilitas yang dapat menunjang terbentuknya suatu sistem sosial

j.         Tekanan dan tegangan yang dapat membantu proses terlaksananya proses “institusionalisasi”

Sistem sosial tersebut dapat berfungsi apabila persyaratan berikut ini terpenuhi (Parson dalam Soelaeman, 1991):

a.       Adanya adaptasi yang mengaharuskan semua yang terlibat dalam sistem sosial tersebut untuk beradapatasi dengan lingkungan dimana sistem sosial tersebut berlaku.

b.      Adanya tujuan bersama yang disepakati yang ingin dicapai oleh semua yang terlibat dalam sistem sosial tersebut.

c.       Adanya integrasi dalam bentuk relasi antar anggota yang terlibat suatu sistem sosial yang berlaku

d.      Adanya upaya pembentukan pola-pola baru yang memungkinkan masuknya sistem sosial lain yang diakibatkan oleh kejenuhan terhadap sistem sosial yang sedang berlaku

c.       Kebudayaan dalam wujud benda. Dari interaksi dan aktifitas yang dilakukan oleh manusia dalam suatu sistem sosial sangat memungkinkan adanya penggunaan alat-alat tertentu sebagai media atau sarana untuk mewujudkan tujuan manusia dan sebagai alat untuk memenuhi keperluan hidup mereka. Wujud kebudayaan ini bersifat konkret (fisik) yang meliputi berbagai bentuk  benda, baik benda diam maupun benda yang bergerak.

Koentjoroningrat membagi wujud kebudayaan menjadi empat lapisan kebudayaan (baik yang bersifat  abstrak maupun konkrit) yang digambarkan  sebagai 4 lingkaran konsentris sebagai berikut:

1.      Lapisan pertama yang disebut dengan kebudayaan fisik. Bentuk kebudayaan pada lapisan pertama ini bersifat konkret dan bisa dilihat atau diraba misalnya candi, patung, pakaian, pesawat atau benda-benda lain yang dapat bergerak. Seperti gambar berikut ini:

Gambar 1                                                        Gambar 2

 

Gambar 3

 

2.      Lapisan kedua atau yang disebut dengan sistem sosial. Wujud kedua dari kebudayaan ini juga bersifat konkrit dan dapat dilihat karena ia merupakan tingkah laku dari manusia dalam suatu komunitas sosial. Oleh karena itu, semua tingkah laku tersebut harus didasari oleh sebuah sistem yang berlaku. Kesemua tingkah laku tersebut dipraktekkan oleh manusia dari waktu kewaktu dan menjadi sebuah pola tingkah laku.

 

Gambar 4

 

3.      Lapisan ketiga dari kebudayaan disebut juga dengan sistem budaya dan bersifat abstrak. Wujud kebudayaan ini disebut juga dengan sistem budaya. Menurut Koentojoningrat, wujud kebudayaan lapisan ketiga hanya bisa difahami dan dimengerti oleh seseorang dari kebudayaan lain melalui proses interaksi dan komunikasi secara mendalam dan intens baik melalui wawancara maupun membaca dari sumber-sumber atau literatur tertentu.

4.      Lapisan terakhir dan menjadi lapisan paling penting dari kesemua lapisan kebudayaan diatas ini merupakan unsur penentu dari sifat dan corak pikiran serta tingkah laku seseorang dari suatu kebudyaan tertentu. Lapisan ini juga disebut sebagai agen dari hasil karya cipta manusia. Akan tetapi, kebudayaan dalam bentuk gagasan ini sulit untuk dirubah karena sudah dipelajari dan terinstitusionalisais dalam diri seseorang sejak kecil dan sudah menjadi bagian dalam gagasan dan tingkah lakunya.

Gambar 5

 

Gambar 6

3. Unsur-Unsur Kebudayaan

Adapun unsur kebudayaan yang

bersifat universal yang dikemukakan oleh para ahli antara lain sebagai berikut:

1. Peralatan dan perlengkapan hidup teknologi yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan manusia sehari-hari termasuk teknologi seperti pakaian, perumahan, alat rumah tangga, senjata dan sebagainya. Unsur kebudayaan ini disebut dengan unsur kebudayaan fisik yang juga dipengaruhi oleh kemampuan manusia untuk mengorganisir suatu kelompok masyarakat dan cara manusia dalam mengekspresikan rasa keindahan baik dalam wujud benda konkrit.
2. Sistem mata pencaharian dan sistem ekonomi baik sistem tradisional maupun modern, misalnya : pertanian, peternakan, sistem reproduksi.
3. Sistem kemasyarakatan, misalnya :  kekerabatan, sistem perkawinan, sistem warisan. Dalam pembahasan unsur kebudayaan, sistem kemasyarakatan menjadi bagian penting yang akan membantu menjelaskan sistem kekerabatan suatu masyarakat dalam sebuah struktur sosial dimana proses relasi skala mikro berlangsung yang melibatkan proses “institusionalisasi”.
4. Bahasa sebagai media komunikasi, baik maupun tertulis.
5. Ilmu pengetahuan
6. Kesenian, misalnya seni suara, seni suara, seni rupa, seni gerak.
7. Sistem religi.

Semua unsur –unsur kebudayaan tersebut tidak berdiri sendiri akan tetapi saling berkaitan satu sama lain dan saling mempengaruhi. Hal ini memungkinkan adanya perubahan pada satu unsur jika terdapat perubahan pada unsur yang lain seperti contoh yang dikemukakan oleh Prasetya, dkk (1991) perubahan yang terjadi pada budaya sesaji kepada Dewi Sri pada masyarakat desa dan Petani, budaya bersih desa dan slametan dikarenakan adanya arus modernisasi dalam bidang pertanian dimana sebagian dari peralatan tradisional bertani seperti bajak dan sapi digantikan dengan mesin. Seperti yang dicontohkan gambar berikut ini:

Dengan adanya peralatan modern tersebut juga berdampak pada tradisi-tradisi yang sudah dilakukan masyarakat sejak dahulu sebagaimana sudah dijelaskan diatas.

IV. Cara Pandang Manusia Terhadap Kebudayaan

D. RANGKUMAN

Dari paparan diatas, maka kita dapat mennyimpulkan bahwa untuk memahami budaya atau yang sering disebut dengan kebudayaan (terlepas dari perbedaan pendapat tentang penggunaan kata “budaya” atau “kebudayaan”) seseorang perlu terlebih dahulu untuk memahami definisi dari budaya atau kebudayaan itu sendiri. Ada beberapa pengertian dari kebudayaan yang sudah dikemukakan para ahli dari displin ilmu berbeda yang pada dasarnya merujuk pada kesimpulan bahwa kebudayaan tidak hanya terbatas pada hasil karya cipta manusia yang mengandung nilai estetika atau seni akan tetapi lebih pada rangkaian kegiatan manusia dalam komunitas sosial yang melibatkan nilai-nilai yang berlaku dan dapat diterima oleh komunitas tersebut sehingga menjadi panduan perilaku bagi seseorang. Kebudayaan juga disisi lain mempengaruhi nilai-nilai yang dimiliki seseorang serta perilakunya. Ia juga meliputi kepercayaan dan norma-norma selain nilai-nilai yang berlaku dimasyarakat.

Hal lain yang bisa digarisbawahi dari paparan diatas adalah bahwa kebudayaan merupakan suatu yang dimiliki bersama oleh seluruh anggota suatu komunitas masyarakat atau oleh sebagaian besar masyarakat dan merupakan hal yang diterima secara turun temurun serta difahami, diterima dan dipraktekkan oleh tiap individu dari anggota masyarakat tersebut melalui proses belajar dan “pelembagaan” (institutionalization). Kebudayaan dalam konteks ini menjadi suatu yang dimiliki dan dipertahankan oleh suatu kelompok dan menjadi sistem pengetahuan yang dipertukarkan melalui suatu proses komunikasi dengan kelompok lain, biasanya dari generasi tua (yang terdahulu mempraktekkan) dengan generasi muda.

Kebudayaan juga terdiri dari unsur-unsur pembentuk yang salaing berkaitan satu sama lain. Ini berarti bahwa adanya perubahan pada salah satu unsur akan mempengaruhi unsur yang lain sebagaimana yang sudah dijelaskan diatas. Selain itu, hal yang juga perlu diperhatikan adalah bentuk atau wujud kebudayaan bisa bersifat abstrak (misalnya gagasan atau ide) maupun konkret (misalnya bangunan candi dan seni suara)

Dengan demikian, sebagaimana para ahli mendiskusikan pemahaman kebudayaan serta aspek-aspek yang melingkupinya, maka kebudayaan dapat secara ringkas dijelaskan sebagai suatu keseluruhan sistem, nilai, norma, gagasan dari seseorang dalam suatu kelompok masyarakat yang menunjukkan bahwa ia adalah bagian atau anggota dari kelompok masyarakat tersebut. Dan kebudayaan menjadi milik bersama dari semua anggota kelompok masyarakat tersebut.

E. LATIHAN/ TUGAS

• Tulislah satu makalah (2-3) halaman mengenai perubahan pada satu unsur budaya yang mempengaruhi unsur budaya yang lain
• Tulislah satu makalah kritis tentang pemahaman dasar dari kebudayaan. Adakah yang perlu direvisi pada konsep budaya atau kebudayaan. Jelaskan dan beri alasan
• Carilah dan tulislah salah satu contoh dari wujud atau bentuk kebudayaan di daerah masing-masing

women and marriage

MARRIAGE AND THE INDEPENDENCY OF WOMEN

(A CASE STUDY ON EARLY MARRIAGE IN LOCAL AREA IN MADURA)

Abstrak

Perkawinan merupakan suatu ikatan yang mengandung nilai ibadah dan suatu tahap kehidupan penting bagi seseorang dengan berbagai tujuan hidup. Oleh karena itulah,segala aspek yang terkait dengan  perkawinan haruslah didasari dengan keputusan yang disadari secara penuh bagi yang melakukan,  yaitu suami atau istri. Dalam konteks ini, kadangkala kemandirian dan hak perempuan seperti penentuan usia perkawinan dan pemilihan pasangan terabaikan terutama pada masyarakat desa atau daerah-daerah dimana masih terdapat bias gender terhadap status dan perempuan yang dikonstruk sebagai suatu kearifan dan norma loka yang seringkali berdampak negatif bagi semua pihak. Dengan demikian, kemandirian perempuan dalam perkawinan semestinya dikembalikan pada pada perempuan agar tujuan mulia  perkawinan dapat terwujud

A. Preface

Marriage serves many purposes for either men or women. For women in rural area, for instance, marriage is an important phase of their life. It can be perceived as natural cycle of life by the women. For many, it is also a need to preserve their existences in society. For individuals, marriage is a variously economic ticket, a socializing influence, a form of child care, a means of escape from social constrains and the locus of many other hopes and desires. What is interesting from the point of viewing marriage is the different purposes which marriage is expected to serve women in various angles. In local area, usually the emphasis on marriage for women has been on moral and social as well as, to some extent, outcomes, both for themselves and for society. As the irony of the fact of the importance of marriage, particular aspect in marriage such as age is mostly ignored by society and by women themselves although it is closely related to the issue of women’s independency. The line of the debate is on the prerogative of women in deciding the age that they want to get married and the person they want to marry with. However, not all the cases of early marriage are the problems of loosing personal prerogative as it can be free and personal choice

B. Early Marriage and the independency of local area women

As Blackburn [1] suggested that the age at which it is appropriate for girls to marry has been a contentious matter in many countries. Furthermore, she pointed out that for certain societies, marriage is considered as family’s prerogative. It brings up the age of marriage to be quite young. Children in this case are rarely to be consulted about marriage and they seldom propose their own will. Moreover, the marriageable age based on the adulthood qualities for daughters to be a wife and a mother is usually ignored by people in general and particularly by the parents. In fact, if the qualities are put into main consideration the marriage could run stable. Furthermore, divorce and its undesirable impacts are probably can be avoided. Then, the next question is that should girls or daughters are allowed to choose their husbands by themselves. The standard age which is suitable for getting marriage is another main question. The aim of proposing these two inquiries is to let the girls know all the consequences of marriage. For instance, girls should know the result of getting marriage before eighteen such as how quickly their body will deteriorate after giving a birth.

Consideration of girls to get marriage earlier is differently argued by people. For many, if the girls had menstruated and reached the age of fifteen, she was old enough to marry. A story of Don Juan reveals the way of Minangkabaus people perceive marriageable age for their daughters. This story tells:

It is right for parents to choose the husband. And among us (matrilineal) Minangkabaus, the rights of male elders must be consulted. If you leave it to a girl, she may be tricked into marriage by a womanizer or misled by men who deceived girls as we read about in Europe.[2]

Strictly speaking, early marriage in one village in Madura is commonly practiced and is differently perceived by people in this village.[3] On the one hand, marriage in the very early age may generate undesirable impact on the children particularly on women as wives. Many possible undesirable impacts are proposed by women in Tlokoh regarding the age of marriage and the prerogative of marriage itself. For many (e.g. a woman figure in the village) pointed out that the practice of early marriage is, to some extent, harmful for women. She puts in this way:

I was very young when I got married. Early marriage can destroy daughters’ life because when they got marriage they did not have complete understanding of how to handle the family. Furthermore, the decision of parents to choose husband for their daughters is also harmful for the husband. The chosen husband may have not reach marriageable age that makes him not ready yet to manage the family’s matters. Moreover, he is probably not financially ready yet. As a result, the family may face obstacles due to lack of financial and psychological preparation.

In addition, another chance to interview other respondents reveals the same line of thought to perceive that early marriage is common but less desirable for the wife. For instance, a primary school teacher in this village suggested that to get marriage in the very early age distort girls’ freedom to express what they want including their own plan of the future. The independency of daughters to make decision for her personal matters is not on her hands. This is commonly parents’ worry that plays role in supporting early marriage to exist in rural area.

Parents are worried if their daughters will not have husband or will get older without any spouses. People in village are economically weak, so they cannot afford school fee to send their children to school. As a result, most girls have nothing to do. They have no significant activities except helping their parents in the farm or cutting grass for the husbandry. Then, if there is a man asking for marrying the daughters, the parents will agree directly. The opportunity that comes to the village girls in that situation above is getting marriage in the very early of their ages. Sometimes they do not know what the meaning of being a wife was. The worst thing is that the parents just accept the husband’s offering without asking their daughters before whether they like to marry soon or not. [4]

Interestingly, as suggested by another research [5] in Madura which reveals the fact of minimum age of marriage that is still low. This research explains the way of Madurese views on marriage that for them the important thing is to follow their own version of Islamic law. In addition, anecdotal evident is also found in this research about special dispensation of marriage age. Some parents usually collude with some local officials in disguising child marriage. This “negotiation” usually occurred due to the marriage below the age of sixteen are not permitted officially. As a result, corruption of age is issued or age can be incorrectly recorded at marriage. In addition, the corruption may be urgently to be practiced due to certain circumstances such as pregnant girls who need to be married off quickly. However, cultural attitudes are also important: particularly in strong Islamic rural areas many people consider it desirable that girls be married as early as possible.[6] It is commonly found that Indonesians practice cultural belief and make the practice as legal that is often justified by religion. A notion proposed by Mulia in her article “Toward Just Marital Law” argues that Indonesian society is currently facing a number of social problems related mostly on the issue of women. Particular cases related to women such as exploitation and discrimination exist in Indonesian society, including domestic violence, women and children trafficking through marriage, high number of underage children marriage and unregistered marriage, and widespread practice of prostitution need a reform of Marital Law although those aforementioned problems are social problems.[7]

Additionally, the previous research in Bangkalan regency of Madura in 1977 suggested the ineffectiveness of the 1974 Marriage Law in this island which is also responsible for the age of marriage. Marriage in the earlier age was remained widespread among girls below twenty in one of sub-districts in Bangkalan regency. There was an identifiable trend toward early marriage. This research also reveals that the marriage of girls under sixteen remained commonplace and was widely accepted within the community.[8]

Like in this village where the research is conducted, early marriage among teenagers is a widely accepted to be practiced. The teenagers, especially women, who have graduated from elementary school (SD) are considered or might consider themselves as capable to get married. The previous observation confirmed the earlier evident that a far greater percentage of girls marry before twenty. Most of people in this village marry on the age of 13- 16 years old for the women. Meanwhile, the men usually aged 16 or 17 years old when they get married. During this research is conducted, there is a young couple is found to have the formal letter from KUA while they got married when the woman was 15 and the man was 17. Therefore, it is not surprising when people in those ages are already become a widow or widower.

Nonetheless, it is also a possibility that among the people in the village there are still who practice later marriage. Their proportion, however, still less than those who marry earlier due to the social tradition of the village. Moreover, in local madrasah particular classical Islamic books such as uqudul Lujen and Risalah Nikah are already taught for the teenagers.[9]

Much has been argued about the tradition of early marriage in this village, including the women themselves. Other women saw marriage in the very early as a significant impact which needed to be brought into line with its search for the benefits and social order.[10] There were a number of reasons for this acceptance. According to those who agree with the tradition of early marriage, it is good for women socially and economically. It seems that this village women view that early marriage can be tolerated due to its positive aspects that can prevent youngsters from undesirable impacts of free relationship, free sex and uncontrolled social interaction. By choosing husband for the daughters, parents are released from the responsibility to protect the daughters from bad things. Moreover, this is also for those girls who have no particular activities such as working or studying. From the idea releasing responsibility, women or daughters tend to be a burden for parents in terms of culture, local norms and religious doctrines. The emphasis of protection is much on women including to provide a husband for the girl since the boys do not get the same treatment.

Social order is another point to let the children marry earlier.  What is meant by social order is social construction what activity is less accepted in this village. It is considered a taboo if single women walk around the village without any clear needs. This phenomenon of social construction leads to the idea of the separation of public and private sphere becomes crucial to control women’s sexuality. Therefore, sexual morality is the concern to “protect” women from “being alone” in public sphere but not protecting men.  In most women’s view, it is better if women with no exact activities get married earlier in Madura particularly in rural area. It will be social problems if they find single women do such activities. People, men and women, will make it as a social issue that will probably make them discuss the girls’ attitude to their parents or their relatives. Therefore, social control towards women is reflecting the issue of women status and role socially and culturally that may be different across culture and religion. Take for example what has been proposed by Whyte[11] that women’s status and their role in rural Asia still experienced the traditional sex role concept in the nuclear family. Meaning that, they still perform four common roles such as a wife, a housekeeper, child-rearer and as a mother. In addition, a society that has being gendered, he stated that “women and men, girls and boys, are treated in systematically different ways (by both women and men). They have different experiences at school, at work and at home, they do different things and different things are expected of them. In other words, women and men have different life experiences to an extent that cannot be explained by simple biological differences between the sexes.”

Then, it is interesting to consider how people in local area like in this village interpret what is considered   to “have activity” and “not to have”. Helping parents in farming or cutting grass for feeding the husbandry are not quite enough to be called as an activity. This is my understanding that “activity” for people in this community is working to be waged or to get money. Therefore, most women try to work to get money to lessen the parents’ burden financially even to financially support their family. The girls, usually, earn money from trading or they go to other places such as to Kalimantan and mostly to other parts in east Java. Those activities can be considered as “activity”.  Interestingly, women are led to be independent economically. Therefore, when they are not working to get the money, they are perceived to not have the clear activities, then. However, the primary emphasis is not producing much money. It is not all the case that women must be independent. Working is just to make women not to do useless things outsides the house. This is due to people concern much on the social norm of two different sexes’ social relationship (men and women) to search the harmony and to maintain the social order. Women are socially protected in this case.

The logic of practicing early marriage as one good way to maintain social order also explains why parents prefer their daughters marry earlier. Parents are usually happy when a man asks the daughter to be his wife. There are several reasons which may contribute in this case. First, to have son in-law earlier is family’s pride. It is a pride for parents when there is an offering for marriage for their daughters. As informed by an informant from local government office in Kokop sub-district that early marriage is part of parents’ pride.[12] His information also reveals the common range for daughters to get marriage. It is around 11 until 12 years old. Parents may feel worried when the daughters have not got married when they aged more than 16. It will be a perception that the daughters are hard to find a husband and it will be a big worry for them.

The most interesting argument and forthright views are expressed by two women in this village (Ainy and hajar).  Hajar made a strong argument for women to accept the practice of early marriage and the authority of parents to choose husband for them. In her view, it is essential to marry earlier for women in Madura considering their future live. Women would need to learn to realize that they need a partner in their life because it is inescapable fact that the ideas of women are men’s partner in many respects. She pointed out her agreement in this way:

I agree with the tradition of early marriage in Madura particularly in this village. Marriage aims for taking care and protecting women’s life in the future emotionally as well as economically. That is why I support early marriage because it will be safe    women’s life earlier. When I got married in the very early of my age, I did not dare to refuse the offering of a man because I was afraid that I would have no husband easily in the next time. Although my first marriage ended with divorce but it was not because of my husband’s fault or mine. My husband, he was the good choice for me. I prefer to divorce with him because external problems beyond our personal problems. Anyway, early marriage is good to be accepted by women.

The focus here is on the fear of finding a husband not merely finding the right person to be long life partner. This is such kind, to the writer, of personal fear to not have a husband if once a woman refuse an offering of marriage. It will be bad luck for women in the future. In addition, surrounding people will question a woman who refuses a man. They may think that this woman is too selective for woman’s standard in rural area. Woman can be struck down by a calamity by this.

In terms of “men’s protection” as has been suggested by Hajar, Ainy is another woman who views positively on early marriage. According to this one-child mother, early marriage is not a big thing for Madurese people since women in Madura seldom to have specific activities. To quote Aini’s statement “ It is better if women get married and there is husband who will protect them. What these two women said about women and early marriage is basically in line with the thought of most women in the village. From the total number of respondent (45 women from different socio-economical backgrounds) only two of them who consider the undesirable impacts of early marriage on women. Meanwhile, the rest tend to give positive response to marry earlier. For them, marry is life cycle that women should pass trough in their life. One aspect of life is to find our soul mate as our partner in life through marriage. If a man comes to propose marriage, there is no reason for woman to refuse as long as he is morally and socially is admitted by people.

A recent case of early marriage occurred in this village of which a twelve-year old girl got married with a boy who is in the same age with her. The parents are curious that their daughter had special relationship with the boy. When the boy made the first visit, the girl’s parents ask him to marry the girl. Interestingly, the boy agreed as well as his parents. Then, the marriage occurred by that time. From the girl’s family, parents feel that they already done their responsibility to protect their daughter’s from immoral attitude and to find a husband for her. When this young wife was interviewed, she reveals the way she thought about her early marriage this way:

I do not know what the meaning of being women is. I just have to follow what my parents order me to do especially about marriage. When I knew a man and he visited my house, my parents proposed us to get married. I accepted it. Then, what I have to now is just to follow my husband wherever he goes.

For such women in this village, early marriage had an almost personally revelatory impact and bonded them to the new experience. And it was marriage earlier that protects them from negative impact of free social interaction with men. It was also early marriage which gives them economical as well as social “protector”. A partner in family bound who can be a partner in several affairs. Therefore, for almost women in this village, it is not a big issue to be questioned and to against the practice of early marriage as women may experience the positive aspects of it. However, it does not mean that they do not consider the negative aspect that they just find early marriage is one way to protect women socially and economically. It might be argued, then, particular Madurese women give their right to be independent in marriage to those who represent them socially. It is not a big deal for them since gender issues (e.g. subordination) internalize in a local context and it is already accepted.

C. Conclusion

Above all the issues, marriage in a local norm, to some extent, ignores women’s independency to regulate their marriage in particular aspects. Therefore, a mutual consent of women becomes critical in marriage although women “sincerely” abandoned her rights to be represented by their male guardians (walis) in marriage. Women should be ensured their freedom in such situations on the concept of consultation as the basic principle of marriage since women must be acknowledged their personal and basic rights to be independent to make decision in their life. In closing it may be safely argued that marriage is a media of which gender is respected and equal rights (men and women) are admitted by social and religious framework. As all such attempts to describe the independency of women in relation with marriage, further research should be conducted.

References

Blackburn, Susan, women and the State in Modern Indonesia,UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004

Bowen, John R, Islam, Law and Equality in Indonesia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003

BPS Bangkalan,Bangkalan in Figures 2003, Bangkalan: BPS kabupaten Bangkalan, 2004

Ellington, Stephen and M. Christian Green, Religion and Sexuality in Cross Cultural Perspectives, New York: Routhledge, 2002

Faisal, Sanapiah, Format-Format Penelitian Sosial, Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada, 2001

Mayling, Oey, et all., Indonesian Women, The Journey Continues, Canberra: Goanna Print Pby Ltd., 2000

Mulyati, Sri (ed), Relasi Suami Istri Dalam Islam, Jakarta: PSW UIN Jakarta, 2004

Orr, Robert Whyte and Pauline Whyte, the Women in Rural Asia, USA: Westview Press, Inc, 1982

Report of Proceeding on The Regional Workshop, Islam, Reproductive Health and Women’s Rights, organized by Sisters in Islam, held in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia at 20^th-23^rd , August,1998

Subaharianto, Andang, et all., Tantangan Industrialisasi Madura, Malang: Bayumedia Publishing, 2004

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[1]Susan Blackburn, women and  the State in Modern Indonesia (UK, Cambridge University Press;2004)  p. 57

[2] Blackburn,…….p.60

[3] The interview is taken from research conducted in one village in Kokop Sub-district in Madura as part of the writer’s master program.

[4] The idea is concluded from the result of interview with the wife of social and religious figure of the village where the research is conducted. Her husband’s social position makes her to be respected by the people. She also play significant social role to be consulted when there is a social problem. However, her role becomes significant after the death of her husband. She was around 12 years of her age when she got married. The phenomena of women loosing independency in aspect of marriage is a cross cultural phenomenon and long rooted tradition. History of Pagan Community also notes that women were regarded as only sexual object of men. Sometimes, the fathers of Pagan girls just gave their daughter to men without asking anything or the father just asking other fathers to be allowed to marry their daughter. It happened as if an exchange daughters to be wives.

[5] See research by Jones (2001) in Blackburn

[6] For further explanation on the practice of early marriage see BlackBurn, Women… chapter 3.

[7] Musdah Mulia, Toward Just Marital Law, issued (dialog con I’Islam)  at WWW.cisro.net/index.php

[8] BlackBurn, Women…….. P. 78

[9] The content of those two classical Islamic text books are about all aspects of marriage such as right and duties of wife and husband. Usually they are also taught in another Islamic educational institution like in pesantren.

[10] From the total number of respondents (45 women) only two people who pointed out the undesirable impact of early marriage. Meanwhile, the rest of respondent view the marriage earlier positively. However, those two women still accepted to get marry earlier although they propose the less desirable aspect of the practice.

[11] Robert Whyte Orr and Pauline Whyte, the Women in Rural Asia (USA,Westview Press, Inc; 1982)

[12] The informant works in the office of local government in Kokop for most ten years and he is one of senior officer in this rural area. He used to deal with social problems within the society due to his duty as well as his responsibility for social welfare.

COMPARATIVE CRITICAL REVIEW

IRAN REVOLUTION, SPONTANEITY OR PLANNING?

(A review on the relationship between opportunities and the political structuring of social movement in Iran revolution case)

It is indisputable that Iran was successful in gaining revolution and it has been much debated among scholars from different disciplines. However, the big question raises whether it just a spontaneity action from Iranians to overthrow the old regime or it, basically, was a made action that has been planned. Many scholars got involved within this debate. Some of them argue that it was not a spontaneity that some people believe, but it was a social movement that passed through certain process of revolution before getting the success.

Rasler (1996), for instance, one scholar who tried to review Iranian Revolution case from political point of view to describe the opportunity which led to the success of Iran revolution that she, herself, defined the term opportunity in a revolution as a concession and a repression from the government. In her article “Concession, Repression and Political Protest in The Iranian Revolution” (vol. 61, issue 1p.132-152) reveals a dynamic relationship between concession and repression in escalating the Iranian protest action. In this research, this political professor used three grand theories namely, micromobilization theory, Value expectancy and bandwagon (critical mass) models to investigate the empirical links between protest behavior (violent and nonviolent), strike, spatial diffusion, concession, repression just a year before the exit of Shah from Iran. She also proposed eleven hypothesis to lead her research to be verified at the end of the research. Another thing that is also noteworthy is the data that were collected from December 1977 to the first half of February 1979 to be analyzed.

The result of the study shows that repression was a crucial factor in increasing individual and group motivation to take part in protest action. What is more, People more likely to participate when they are repressed and they did not belong to formal organization. In this case, Rasler tended to support dynamic perspective on repression       (for overall levels) theorizing that repression, in general, has short and long term effect on micromobilization and escalatory process in which she support the Opp and Ruehl (1991) theory stating that repression can stimulate protest behavior by launching micromobilization process that bring people to the street.

On one hand, repression may stop the protest action where the government has the power to do something on the protesters such as arresting and banning them. On the other hand, for the long term effect, it give positive effect on the collective action in term of the escalatory process where a small group allied with rudimentary forms of organization to produce mobilization.

Furthermore, Rasler also pointed out the positive link between concession and spatial diffusion during the process of revolution in Iran. Using those three grand theories I have stated earlier, she found that an indicator of link in which value expectancy models theorized that people in Iran have a high expectancy of success that led them to participate in mass action. This theory is supported band wagon theory stating that people were engaged in a willingness and commitment each others in such actions through a social network to exchange information where Iranian mostly did in mosques since that were the only places that the old regime had no interference at all. Basically, it may be true if rasler said that protesters believed that they would be successful if they act together as a team and it also became one form of spatial diffusion in Iran case.

Last, but not least, thing that we should also notice is her points of the research that so called critical events became the conerstone of the data to potray the increasing level of the protests and spatial diffusion process significantly.

In short, Rasler did a good scientific work on Iran revolution case in finding out its behind factors the opportunity of Iran to gain its great revolution. The main argument, however, that she actually wants to emphasize is that mass mobilization is a necessary component of a successful revolution including Iran case of revolution. On that “mass mobilization” point she linked to the opportunity, based on her definition of opportunity itself, that supported the process of mutual relationship of different groups to make a mass protest action. Even she clearly stated that Iran revolution was the example of regime’s fall through a rapid mass mobilization. In other words, she proposed that a mass mobilization, beside the opportunity that open the chance to the people to do political structuring, has a significant power in gaining a revolution

Another scholar who tried to prove that Iran revolution was not a spontaneous action was Theda Sckocpol. In her article “Rentier State and Shi’I Islamin The Iranian Revolutio”(vol. 11 no.3May, 1982, p. 263-283) she outlined some important points. First, she theorized that Iran revolution has a qualification as a social revolution in which she, herself, defined it as basic transformation of a country’s state and class structure and of its dominant ideology. In other words, she wants to say that Iran revolution was not a simply political revolution but also a social one since class-based upheaval from below was one factor of Iran revolution.

Second, she described the stages that Iran revolution passed through during the process to support her argument stating that revolution in Iran was made. Initially, it was a product of complicated condition after the rapid modernization where Iranians faced a universal frustation with the pace of the change. That condition was followed by the incapability of armed forces to keep the state integrated. At  the last stage, the revolution which was deliberately made by mass-based social movement to overthrow the regime.

Third point that Skocpol proposed is the failure of Shah’ regime to utilize the power of modernized armed forces that he had. The Shah, in this case, ignored one important factor that was the regime alliance in which Shah did not allied with any independent social classes. In fact, the social class alliances were more powerful to challenge Shah’s authority. In addition, she added that shi’i ideology played important role within that revolution. This ideological  tenet supported the fall of the regime along with its doctrine justifying resistance againts unjust authority.

Beside her own arguments, Skocpol proposed a spatial diffusion trend through social communication as well as Rasler to show the strenght of that factor to lead to a culture condusiveness to challenge the authority.

In general, these two scholars maintained one idea, indirectly, stated that Iranian revolution was not a spontaneity emerged during shah’s regime. Hence, it passed a long process with a structural opportunity giving the regime’s opposants to overthrow the old order. Another point that they similarly pointed out are significant role of mass action in that revolution in which Skocpol stated that it was mass-based upheavals that made the revolution occurred. In this case, she stated that Iran revolution was a social revolution and she, herself, defined it as a basic transformation. However, Skocpol in presenting that argument above, had different emphasis from Rasler that she focused the revolution process not in term of the opportunity but in transformation on certain aspect process such as the tranformation of  class structure..

One thing that may be missing from her work is the explanation of her theory of rentier state itself since it may lead us to different description on that kind of state. She actually should lead us to the same understanding of  the rentier state term.

Despite those points above, including their similarity grand ideas, There are certain points that I would like to add and argue.

First, The issue of opportunity of revolution to emerge ( that I adress most to Rasler). To borrow the theory of the elements of opportunity in comparative perspective on social movements:political opporunities, mobilizing structures and cultural framing book, edited by Mc Adam, et.all, stating that one structural elements of revolution is the dividing elites stage. In Rasler’s work, she focused the analysys only on the repression, concession and spatial process factor by treating only three big events that she named by critical events (the august Abadan cinema burning, the appointment of a reform-oriented prime minister and september black Friday) to start hes analysis to find the link between those three above factor and the protest action although she already stated that the data were collected  since 1977. even, She said that 1878 protest movement event in the fall of regime are likely candidates as ctitical events. In fact, the starting even actually, I my self argue, was begun since 1977  where the repression emerged from the people and from many angles led to the dividing process in Iran’s elite. Moreover, the the regime articulated the reform solution to solve the mass repression on the government. This elite dividing encouraged unrepresented group to participate in collective action. In Iran case, regarding the dividing in elites open the wider leeway to the people to interfere directly in politics by overthrowing the old regime. Therefore, Rasler, actually, should also calculated the starting event in which one element of revolution may take place. However, it is not to say that three big events were not too important, but I just analyze that each events should be put into account to find possible factor beside repression, concession and spatial diffusion in a revolution.

Second point that I like to add is the possible changing of protesters strategies during the concession and repression process. Rasler, in this point, did not pay attention much. In fact, in that process, the protesters also had chance to change their strategies  in respond to the concession and the accommodation of the Shas’s regime. In Iran, there was a character changing within the protest action in which the form of the group was changed from certain social class into the recruitment of all social class. If the condition from the both side, the government and the people, were analyzed , for instance, it will give us another prove of the theory used by Rasler stating that the government responsible variable may influence the following action made by people. Therefore, a changing of choice of action should be discussed also to find out what social class played a great role of the revolution since Khomeiny had been believed as the main actor in Iran process so far. It seems that clergy social group was the most dominant actor in Iran by that time.

To respond skocpol’s idea stating that in the revolution process, there was a transformation process of the dominant ideology. It may be true since Iran passed a converting process to Syi’i ideology after it gain its revolution. If the process is regarded as a transformation process meaning that syi’i transformed from a conservative ideology into non-conservative one, I agree with that notion. However, in Iran actually there was no transformation of dominant  ideology since almost Iranians are the follower of shi’i.

To sum up, both writers, either rasler or skocpol, were successful to propose the argument that Iran revolution was a made revolution with its elements of opportunity that was conducive at that time to support the success of the revolution in spite of some weakness that I try to analyze. However, both of them give point of views scientifically  contributing on reviewing Iran revolution as a revolution case regardless its uniqueness. To some extent, both writer provide convincing reasons why mass mobilization were so powerful in gaining revolution and what political structure that may influence that success. Still, that scientific and political works need further analysis since one point is still missing in studying Iran case. It is last point I will raise, then, that historically the revolution in Iran was not merely appeared in political sense. Along the process, we already noted that the fell down of the economic power of the country should not be overlooked also because it also force the Iranians to act to resist their economic suffer after the decline of the oil prices as the main revenue of the country. If, for example, the economic condition did not changed where the people were economically were granted, the protest events probably did not emerged or if it emerged the process and the result might be different also. However, we still can used these works to study Iran case although they have not completed yet. So far it is still realistic way to use them to understand the protest events since those scholars, moreover Rasler, proposed some theories of protest events emergence and breakdown society theory used by Skocpol.

Referrences

Harimurty and qomaruddin SF, Gagalnya Politik Islam (trans. Edition), Jakarta, PT Serambi Ilmu Semesta

Mc. Adam, et. all, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements : Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framing, 1999, United States of america, cambridge University Press

Rasler, Karen, Rentier State and Shi’a Islam in the Iranian Protest, 1982, vol.11 no.3, p. 265-283, Kluwer Academic publisher

Skocpol, Theda, Concession, Repression, and Political Protest in The Iranian Revolution, 1996, vol. 61, p. 132-152, American Sociological Review.

Zayar, The Iranian Revolution, Present and Future ( trans. By Anton HI), 2002, Yogyakarta, Sumbu Yogyakarta

AL-QUR’AN AND ISLAM MODERNISM;

BETWEEN REVELATION AND REASON

It is law of nature that human being’s civilization always changes and develops contextually in line with the passage of time. This change results in a “contextual “ consequence on the human beings to adapt within the process of that changing to maintain their existence. It means that one community’s civilization may be higher than other’s in which it may threaten other’s civilization. 1800 M, for instance, was a period when moslem world realized that their civilization was threaten by westen civilization. A passage of historical period when egypt was conquered by western colonialization. Then, what moslem should do in that situation whereas they , basically, has great guidence mean to creat their civilization and to reach happiness in their life that is Al-qur’an. Accordingly, it must be something that moslem should do on their “guidence” since it was believed by Islam adherents that it  is  Allah’s revelation containing all His guidence and teachings that moslems can use in their life.[1] Other words, the development of moslems depends much on the way how they understand, use and and apply what are in the qur’an in their life. To understand qur’an, meaning that they have to interprete all  what in the qur’an.

The problem, then, what qur’an said is historically and contextually since it was revealed by Allah trough the prophet Muhammad  in Arabian society with its own culture and condition around second century  through a process of revelation that is possible to be different from moslem’s condition now. Interpretation and reinterpretation attempt is needed then. However, one rooted typical of some moslems communities is their sacralization on Qur’an that perceived it as divined and sacred book which must be interpreted textually as the way it is. As a result, a gap appears between their understanding and their interpretation on qur’an and what they are facing since they take the textual message not the hidden one as the real message of qur’an it self. By contrast, other communities perceive qur’an differently. For them, it is inevitable and disputable that qur’an a sacred book but it does not mean that they cannot intrepre it contextually. It is not to say that interpreting qur’an in that way reducing their faith. The question now, how is the role of reason that Allah gives to humans to study and to take the lesson of the qur’an if moslem put a barrier between revelation and reason?. In fact  in Qur’an Allah clearly stated that only those who used their reasons that will get the lessons from the qur’an[2]. Therefore, why should moslem be afraid in using their reason in interpreting or reinterpreting the qur’an to make it in accordance with the contextual condition? In which it is the consequence of moslems believe that qur’an is sholih likulli makan wa zaman.

Basically, the debate on the using of reason and revelation is due to its divinity spirit that moslems believed rigidly. Moslems, however, ignore another aspect of qur’an that it is also a collection of texts having historical aspect because it passed through a certain time and place during its revelation process. Therefore, several aspects such as language, history, and culture got involve in that process before it became a fixed –writing book that we know now. Therefore, we cannot ignore those aspects, especially its historical aspect, when interpreting the Qur’an. Actually, the process of interpretation of the texts of the Qur’an emerged since the age of prophet especially there was a certain verse that could not be understood easily but the presence of the prophet made it easy. However, the interpretation process became a problem after the death of the prophet because moslems have different perception toward qur’an and its holiness.

In respond to that matter, the passages of  modern islamic history notes a revival movement on islamic knowledge which is issued by modern moslems  which is so-called Islam modernism or renewal of Islam. Islam modernism, in this article, refers to what Mastuhu [3]stated that it is an effort to renew the interpretation, explanation and the ways of islamic teaching implementation based on what has been stated in qur’an and hadist to make them accord with  the situation and condition icluding the problems that moslems are facing.

In this movement, the main idea that emerges is back to the qur’an and hadist. M. Abduh, take an example, is one of moslem scholar that raises the issue above and emphasizes the need of new reinterpretation toward islamic teachings to be inline with the change of time and condition. Not only Abduh but also other moslem scholars propose the same idea with Abduh. One thing that they provoke is the urgence of interpretation (tafsir). [4]Furthermore, Nawawi (2002) pointed out in gaining the new interpretation of qur’an which is suitable with the condition is rational interpretation. Meaning that the use of reason is significant here. His notion is in line with what Abd al-Hazim al – Zarqoni propose an interpretation method so-called rational tafsir           ( tafsir bi al-ra’yi) or ijtihad tafsir (tafsir ijtihadi).However, it is important to state that interpreting qur’an rationally is not to get the absolute meaning of qur’an verses. It is still relative interpretation because the exact and the absolute interpretation is only on Allah.

It is noteworthy that interpretation (tafsir) has main cores that should not be overlooked. First, it is an attemp to to clarify what Allah really mean with some verses. In this case, tafsir make moslems understand qur’an easily. Next, to understand and to explain what is still global in qur’an. Last but not least, is that a multi interdiscipline of methods and knowledge are illegible to be used to interprete qur’an to reach that aim.

Those aforementioned cores, will be another explanation why “reason” must be included in the process of Islam modernism. It reveals that in that process moslems cannot pass through by leaving qur’an as the basic normative source of islamic teachings as long as they belong to Islam followers. Indeed, they cannot apply it without using their reason just for keeping their faitht reason. I might say that both of revelation and reason are mutual inter –relation each other in modernizing Islam.

It is also interesting to view that using reason freely in interpreting qur’an leads to the contemporer moslem scholars propose various methods in approaching qur’an based on their background of their disciplines. Another significant thing to note is the character of modern interpretation in terms of the methodology and the approaches used toward qur’an that makes it differed from the previous interpretation. While, it is not to judge that they use their reason not in the appropriate way leading them to be infidels.

Based on the great aim of  bringing qur’an to its original role as humankind’s guidence (hudan li an-Nas), contemporary commentators of Qur’an (mufassir) tend to use different methods  compared to traditional commentators. On one hand, traditional commentators tended to interpret qur’an by using analytical method (tahlili) and contemporer commentators prefer to use global method( ijmali) and thematic  method (maudlu’I) associting with different approaches such as gender, semantic, and hermeneutics, on the other.[5]

Two significant characters of contemporer are important to note. A notion of “bring qur’an to be guidence book” is the first character. In this case, the commentators perceive qur’an as a dynamic revelation collection with its historical background. It brings its culture where it was revealed. Hence, to get the real message, some technical knowlegde are not enough to do that job but other new approaches can be used. Another character of this kind of interpretation is the motto that issue to reveal the “ spirit of qur’an”. What they raise in this matter is the proof of qur’an reliabilty stating that it is approriate in any time and in any condition ( shalihun likulli zaman and makan). It aims  to find the “universal” values of qur’an that sometimes are stated implicitely in qur’an. Therefore, contemporer commentators propose a new method thas to be based on what really qur’an verses want (syari’ah). This method is so-called al-ibrah bi maqashid asy-syari’ah. What  they mean by universal values of qur’an are the principle of  justice, equality, human rights et cetra.[6]

As I stated earlier that the contemporer commentators use different methods and approaches in interpreting qur’an as a result of the rational awarness on the real values of qur’an and the dynamic change of human ‘s life including  their different opinions toward the texts of the Qur’an as well as its holiness.. One of the approach  that is proposed by them is hermeneutical approach which focuses on the texts of the Qur’an as the subject of its study by considering some aspects related to the Qur’an.

Nasr Hamid Rizk Abu Zaid, for instance, is one of modern moslems scolars, beside Arkoun and Syahrour, who proposes and develops hermeneutical approach to study and to interpret Qur’an since he considered the two basic aspects of Qur’an, namely texts (as a result of revelation) and history, which make him to argue that the interpretation of the texts is flexibel and dynamic, meaning that it can be developed in accordance with the changes of the time and place (contextual) trough a scientific approach. Other words, as Nasr stated in his Iskaliyat al-qiraat wa’aliyat al-Tamwil that hetrmeneutic study tries to analyze and to explain the theory of texts exegesis (nazariyat ta’wil al-nusus) proposing other scientific approaches that can examine the process of understanding, the system of exegesis and also the explanation of the texts.[7]In this case, he used linguistics literature critics, as his expertise background, in his hermeneutical approach.

Nasr hamid’s point of view, in his hermeneutical approach, focuses on qur’an as a revelation in form of “a communication process” and qur’an as “a historical texts”. His point of departure of his discussion on qur’an is  the concept of revelation since Qur’an is believed that it was revealed gradually to the Prophet trough a certain way. Hence, the concept of “revelation” (wahy) itself need to be defined first. For him. The central meaning of wahy is “giving information” (I’lam) having certain requirement that the process must be in secret form.[8]So, in the process “giving information”, a process of communication that need a certain “code” in order the message or the information can be received easily by the receiver. Still, in the same book, mafhum Al-Nash, Nasr gave the example of communication that used certain “code” in Maryam and The Prophet Zakariya case (p.32-33). He, also illustrated the situatation of the revelation process that  can be drawn in diagram below:

Allah

Revelation (tanzil)

Nonvocal texts

Jibril        wahy                        Muhammad                 Human beings

(verbal texts)

In this process, the position of Jibril as an angel changed into humanbeing position in which verbal communcation occurred. Wahy language, in order the meaning to be received , it must be changed certain language systemand must be accordance with the object of the revelation. In this case, due to the object is humanbeings, so that the language of  Wahy must be in human beings language system.

Another point that Nasr argued is Al-Qur’an might be defined as a text (in linguistic perspective) since in qur’an we can find sentences as well as what we can find in a book. It means that both of them is fulfilled by language. Allah, in his opinion, Choosed the proces of giving information trough a communication (as his first point above). Therefore, in that communication “language” is needed. A language that can be understood by the receiver, Muhammad. Borrowing the definition of “langue” of Ferdinand De Saussure (1857-1913) that it is a language in historical realm which become the common sense in a society. Otherwise, we might say that Allah used Arabic language in the process of giving information since the Prophet speak Arabic. As a result, Al-Qur’an that we are holding now, in linguistic definition, and onthological real, is equal with other texts. In spite of Nasr’s admittance of the argument that Qur’an has divinity spirit that makes it a sacred book or what we call by “ textus receptus”, human text but has divinity source (originality).

After putting the text of the Qur’an as human texts, he also tried to focus on two things related to the concept of texts; first, relationship and sytematical contact (al-alaqot al-murakkabat) between text and culture which influences the forming of the text itself and secondly, a text as a culture. These things are related to study of Qur’an (Ulumul Al-qur’an)which also discusses the history, authority and the the context of the text of the Qur’an.

According to Nasr, study on Qur’an and Islam should be based on the “texts” as the source of  Islamic teaching. His basic aims in studying Qur’an trough hermeneutical approach are: first, to reconnect Qur’an studies to literature and critical studies since the heermeneutical approach caan be defined a a method, theory dan phylosof focusing on the problem of understanding and interpreting qur’an’s texts. Second, to define the objective understanding about Islam which is out of ideological interests[9] . To make it posssible, a view  or an attempt to humanise Qur’an should be alowed. It means that Nasr tends to say that human beings are the object of the revelation including the first receiver, The Prophet Muhammmad, therefore the the language norm of the revelation should be in accordance with human beings’ language norm although the message is coming from Allah.As a result , the text of the Qur’an in language realm is not sacred that cannot be touched at all when it needs to be interpreted as the source of Islamic teachings but the objectivity must be involved within. Moreover, laguage develop in line with the development of society and culture. It implies that it is a possibility to reinterprete texts of qur’an based on historical context and it’s social originality that more humanistic without changing the texts literally.

His opinion about the objectivity of text can be seen in his work “ Mafhumu al- Nash”. He emphasized that text must be studied and interpreted objectively trough scientific methodology and theories which are developed in linguistic and textual studies. The only way to interprete Qur’an is trough linguistic method (al-manhaj al-lughowi)[10] .

To sum Nasr hamid hermeneutical analysis on qur’an up, in general he argued that an objetive interpretation which is out of ideological interest either theologically and econoically is the core of Qur’an because one of the character of hermeneutical approach is deconstruction process of hegemonic interpretation which is full of ideological bias. To get that aim, a scientific approach should openly allowed and to consider qur’an text as human text make the interpretation more contextual since it also cultural product having also linguistic-historical and human aspects. Despite his liberal opinion, Nasr Hamid still considered by some scholar to have some weaknesses that shows his dualism position in which he argued differently toward insider and outsider when critisizing Al-qur’an. He argued methodologically toward moslem but radically toward non-moslems. Another weakness is that he did not give explisit definition of the “text” in his work “ Mafhum al- Nash”. He just defined text as “meaning (dalalah) that needs understanding, explanation and interpretation. However, his approach in studying Qur’an make the hermeneutical approach is not only regarded as language approach but also social approach since his key point is that Qur’an text has historical aspect with a language which emerges in a culture in certain society that represents the cultural characterstics of the society.

The aim of presenting Nasr hamid approach in studying qur’an is not to discuss it further but it just merely a case proving that in modernism Islam process many ways to find the spirit of qur’an universal values are needed within. However, the aim cannot be reached if the role of the reason is left behind.  In so doing, moslems should be freed from dogmatic  hegemony that make them are afraid to be rational in understanding qur’an or try to contextualize it in their own condition. One reason, of this argument, is qur’an is not the normative source for moslems Arab only, but is is for for moslems in the entire part of the world. This argument is followed by the discussion on “Islam” as a religion. If  we talk about Islam, it is not to say it as Arab religion but it is a geography,  cultures and societies discussion. Those theme, raise a different feature of Islam and the moslems. To make qur’an meaningfull in their life, moslems in different part of the world must use their reason to contextualize qur’an to be possibly applied in their place. If  being rational is regardes as deviation and refusal action on the holiness of qur’an, so, qur’an is revealed only being Arabians guidence and their islamic normative source.

Another point in discussing revelation and reason, in my opinion, is the failure of moslems to pick the universal values of qur’an up. When the reason is limited in understanding and interpreting qur’an,  Islam seems so rigid and has no modernity themes such as pluralism, gender and human rights. In facts those theme are in qur’an but certain moslems interprete it in different way (textually and less rational). As a result , non-moslems communities appear by bringing the claim of the pioneer of those theme. However, thank to some modern thinkers such as shacjedina who propose the unified approach on qur’an and stated that certain issue like plularism is in qur’an including other moslems with their rational interpreation of qur’an effort to make qur’an contextual.

In conclusion, Revelation is indisputable to be a sacred and holy book in the eyes of moslems. It is needed urgently to be the guidece (hudan) in their life. Accordingly, The reason should be put on the process of understanding qur’an in order Islam adherents easily find what actually Allah guides and wants from humankind trough the revelation. The main point, in this article, that I actually want to emphasize is Al’qur’an is a discourse fixed into writing form[11]. Meaning that is writing form and its codification already finished but not the interpretation since the absolute meaning and its message is on Allah. Meanwhile, Humankind’s life always changes in line with the passage of time and Allah suggests moslems to use their given reason to find the relative message and relative meaning of qur’an to be applied in their life. Last but not least, Interpretation and reinterpretation through rational thingking is needed in Islam modernism process. However, the consequence of the pluralism in interpretation qur’an cannod be avoided as aresult of different way of interpreting should not be looked as disintegrity of qur’an interpretation . It should be viewed wisely as a flexibility of Islam and the richness of rational thingking of qur’an commentators (mufassir). Wallahu a’lam

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[1] Al-qur’an surah38; 29

[2] ibid

[3] Mastuhu in Nawawi , Rasionalita Tafsir Muhammad Abduh, p.5

[4] Nawawi, Rif’at syauqi, Rasionalitas Tafsir Muhammad Abduh, Kajian Masalah Akidah dan Ibadah,2002, Paramadina, Jakarta, p. 6

[5] Mustakim, Abdul, Madzahibut tafsir,p. 97

[6] ibid, p. 96

[7] Hilman Latief, Kritik Texts Keagamaan (Jogjakarta: elSAQ press, 2003)

[8] Nasr Hamid, mafhum Al-nash, dirasah fi Ulumil Al-Qur’an (Beirut: Al-Markaz al-Tsaqofi al Arabi, 1994) p.31

[9] Moch Nur Ichwan, Meretas kesarjanaan Kritis Al-Qur’an (Jakarta: Teraju, 2003)

[10] ibid

[11] Rahman, Yusuf, Kajian Hermeneutik , Pluralitas Tafsir Qur’an, Jawa Pos , Sunday 13rd January 2002

ISLAM INDONESIA AND DEMOCRACY; A CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PLURALISM OF MOSLEM’S POLITICS

(A Review on Robert W. Hefner’s Examination on democratization in an age of religious revitalization)

Introduction

The compatibility of Islam with democracy lies on the puzzle of political theories over decades. Islam as a religious doctrine is questioned whether it can promote democracy values or not since the historical facts shows less evidences for its success to go along with democracy as a sort of political and governmental system. The core problem of the puzzle and debate is related with people’s understanding on Islam itself as well as its adherents’.  Conversely, this religion pronounces its compatible value of the doctrines with certain places and certain times. Consequently, it can compromise with any kinds of facts or systems as long as they are in line with its basic values namely promoting human rights and give happiness to human being

Another interesting discussion on Islam is that it emerges differently in different places with different features of Islam. The question, then, could Indonesian Islam promotes democracy including its values to be implemented in this country since the majority of the citizens are Moslems? Therefore, this paper addresses the issue on Islam in Indonesian context in relation with democratization process. The main purpose is to investigate Robert W. Hefner’s examination on the relationship of Islam and  democratization in Indonesia that he tends to counter some political theories’ about democracy including westerners’ doubt of the emergence of democracy in majority-Moslem nation or in Moslem world.[1]

Hefner comes with his deep discussion in his book “civil Islam” in portraying the role of Islam as well as the role of intellectual Moslem to promote democratization process. To borrow his phrase notion ” democratization in an age of religious revitalization”, he emphasizes the belief on the compatibility of Islam with this kind of political system, democracy which is commonly believed as product of modernization and secularization in western countries. As his point of departure is that he theorizes Muslim politics, to restate his statement, which is not monolithic but plural.[2] In addition, this anthropologist pointed out the precedent of civic seedling in Indonesia, which reveals the fact of the diversity of Indonesian Moslems’ ideas how to be a Muslim, and he “pronounces” this phenomenon as cultural pluralism.[3] He theorized, also, that democracy can develop in Indonesia. The reason why democracy is hard to exist in this country is that the civil state, as another component of democracy, did not exist during certain periods of Indonesian political life. From this standpoint he, then, points out the intellectual Moslems whose democrat views that tends to have liberal spirit in understanding their Islam and performing their civil concept. To Hefner, those Moslem democrats are civil democratic who play crucial role in democratization process. However, the process of democratization process faces their obstacle to be really achieved by Indonesia is due to the lack of another basic factor of democracy namely civil state as aforementioned earlier. He discusses the issue of the state and political regime in Indonesia periodically from the early new order until the fall of Soeharto’s regime.

GENDER DAN SASTRA

Dalam dinamika perkembangan hidup manusia, sastra menjadi salah satu aspek dari kehidupan sosial budaya yang memberikan kontribusi tersendiri terhadap perjalanan hidup manusia. Hal tersebut dikarenakan oleh sastra sendiri memberikan gambaran, refleksi bahkan alternatif pola sikap dan pandangan bagi manusia terhadap segala sesuatu yang terjadi disekitar dimana ia tinggal dan berinteraksi sehingga seseorang memiliki pemikiran yang baru dan tidak terjebak pada suatu kondisi dimana ia membatasi diri dengan pemahaman yang sudah terkonstruksi oleh pengetahuan dan lingkungan sosial budayanya. Ini menunjukkan bahwa manusia merupakan makhluk yang berkembang (evolutif) dalam suatu sistem kehidupan yang berkembang pula dimana hala ini tidak bisa kita hindari dan sastra menjadi media refleksi dari ide-ide dari perkembangan itu sendiri dalam bentuk karya seni.

Sementara itu, bagi penghasil karya satra itu sendiri, kadangakala sastra menjadi media ekpresi atau pernyataan dari dunia batin dan jiwa pengarangnya terhadap apa yang terdapat disekitarnya karena sastra sendiri lahir dan berkembang dalam suatu masyrakat yang sangat heterogen dan plural. Dengan demikian, sastra memberikan warna (refleksi atau pemikiran) yang bervariasi terhadap suatu hal dalam masyarakat. Sastra dimunculkan oleh seseorang untuk “memaksa secara halus” orang lain melihat sisi lain dari suatu permasalahan yang sebagian besar masalah-masalah yang muncul dari kehidupan sosial. Oleh karena itu, pembacaan terhadap suatu karya sastra tidak dilepaskan mutlak dari konteks masyarakat dan sejarah yang melingkupinya untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang tidak bersifat parsial dari apa yang dimaksud atau diinginkan untuk disampaikan oleh karya sastra tersebut. Misalnya karya satra yang lahir dalam konteks masyarakat dimana isu-isu gender sedang berkembang, maka framework yang dipaka untuk membaca karya satra yang dihasilkan adalah analisa gender dimana kedudukan laki-laki dan perempuan dan representasi nilai-nilai gender menjadi objek kritik utama. Hasil kajian akan berupa pengujian komprehensif tentang alasan dan latar belakang perilaku sosial budaya baik yang netral maupun yang bias gender oleh penulis atau pembaca suatu karya sastra. Dengan demikian, paradigma sastra menjelaskan bahwa dalam pembacaan makna suatu karya sastra  merupakan hasil dari interpretasi dan pikiran kreatif penulis dan pembaca itu sendiri.  Sehingga, asumsi dan pandangan yang berlainan dalam membaca makna suatu karya sastra sangat mungkin berlainan satu sama lain.

Dari penjabaran sastra tersebut, maka pada dasarnya bukan suatu hal yang mudah untuk mendudukkan sastra dan gender secara bersamaan untuk mencapai pemahaman yang sama dalam konteks otonomi penulis dan pembaca dengan sistem nilai yang dibangun oleh masing-masing pihak tersebut . Akan tetapi, penggunaan framework gender dalam menghasilkan dan membaca makna suatu karya sastra merupakan suatu hal yang memperluas cakupan karya sastra dimana seseorang bisa melihat apa yang terjadi disekitarnya yang seringkali terabaikan apabila hal itu mengenai konstruksi sosial laki-laki dan perempuan dalam kerangka “isu-isu gender”. Motif-motif pemikiran tentang isu-isu gender dapat tersampaikan dibalik penyajian karya sastra atau bahkan gender bisa menjadi kerangka analisis dalam menilai suatu karya sastra. Hal ini tidak lepas dari alasan mendasar bahwa isu-isu gender sendiri merupakan permasalahan yang muncul dalam suatu acuan kehidupan sosial dari suatu masyarakat dimana karya sastra dihasilkan. Secara menyeluruh, bisa kita sarikan bahwa gender  merupakan suatu kerangka analisa dalam kajian sastra  yang dapat menunjang dihasilakankan pemahaman yang holistik terhadap karya sastra.

a. Sastra Dan Realitas Sosial Budaya

Sastra sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu masih diperdebatkan baik dari aspek definisi, jenis (aliran) maupun fungsi terutama ketika dikaitkan dengan disiplin ilmu lain seperti Sosiologi yang bahasannya mencakup isu-isu sosial dan budaya dari suatu masyarakat tertentu. Hal ini menjadi menarik ketika para akademisi maupun orang-orang yang terlibat dalam kajian sastra masih belum mencapai kata sepakat ketika mendefinisikan sastra itu sendiri dan pembahasan tersebut akan membawa pada pembahasan fungsi dari sastra itu sendiri. Akan tetapi, definisi yang diajukan oleh berbagai pihak seringkali dipengaruhi oleh perspektif yang menaunginya.Misalnya saja sastra dalam perspektif sosiologi yang diberikan oleh Levin[1] bahwa “sastra tidak hanya hasil dari efek sosial akan tetapi juga merupakan penyebab dari efek sosial tertentu”. Denga demikian, hal yang ingin ditekankan adalah pengaruh timbal balik dari teks dan konteks dalam karya sastra dari aspek sosialnya.

Dalam penelitian sastra yang menggunakan perspektif sosiologi, kondisi sosial tertentu yang melingkupi dimana suatu karya sastra dihasilkan menjadi kajian tersendiri untuk memahami karya sastra tersebut. Laurenson dan Swingewood menekankan tiga hal penting dalam sosiologi sastra jika kaitkan dengan penelitian sastra yaitu; pertama, karya sastra sebagai dokumen sosial yang merefleksikan situasi sosial ketika sastra diciptakan. Kedua, sastra merupakan refleksi sosial pengarang atau penulisnya. Ketiga, sastra merupakan manifestasi dari kondisi sosial budaya dan peristiwa sejarah.[2] Dari tiga hal diatas, nampak bahwa sastra bisa menjadi media refleksi dari suatu kondisi maupun realitas sosial budaya tertentu. Dengan demikian,sastra dapat dikatakan memiliki kekuatan sosial    untuk melihat nilai dan praktek budaya pada konteks zaman tertentu. Akan tetapi,seluruh penilaian tetap dikembalikan kepada masyarakat apakah suatu karya sastra memiliki fungsi sosial atau tidak.

Keberadaan pengarang sebagai penghasil dari sebuah karya sastra merujuk pada cara sesorang individu yang menjadi bagian dari komunitas sosial menginternalisasikan dan mensosialisasikan cara pandang hidupnya yang direfleksikan melalui teks. Terdapat upaya dialog antara teks yang ditulis oleh pengarang dengan konteks realitas keadaan masyarakat  dimana pengarang ingin menyampaikan suatu realitas yang ingin ditentang, dirubah,diolok-olok atau bahkan sekedar untuk digambarkan. Misalnya saja karya-karya sastra yang dihasilkan oleh parakelompok feminis yang mencoba menggambarkan  posisi subjek perempuan dalam tatanan budaya patriarkhi dan peran domestik perempuan yang jarang disuarakan. Dengan demikian, sastra merupakan crminan dari pikiran dan keinginan penulis melalui proses internalisasi nilai dan situasi sosial budaya dimana penulis menjadi bagian atau pengamat dari proses sejarah dan realitas sosial budaya tertentu.

b. Sastra Sebagai Refleksi Isu-Isu Gender Dalam Masyarakat

Sastra sebagaimana difahami secara umum (baik sastra tulis maupun lisan) sebagai suatu kesenian merupakan media representatif yang mampu menampung realitas dan imajinasi dalam suatu bentuk nyata yang dapat dinikmati tidak hanya bagi diri sendiri akan tetapi juga bagi orang lain. Banyak teori yang sudah dihasilkan berkaitan dengan fungsi sastra itu sendiri terutama ketika dikaitkan dengan imajinasi dari suatu struktur dan sistem sosial dari gambaran suatu masyarakat seperti yang sudah djelaskan sebelumnya. Misalnya saja ketika sastra menjadi refleksi sebuah potret dari struktur sosial dalam suatu masyarakat yang menggambarkan bagaimana  relasi antara laki-laki dan perempuan dalam suatu ideologi dan sistem patriarkhi. Maka, pengkajian terhadap fungsi sastra menjadi sangat penting untuk memahami, merespon ide yang ada bahkan membangun suatu ide-ide baru yang kemudian dikonstruksi ulang dalam suatu masyarakat. Suatu strategi kultural dan struktural dari upaya refleksi diri masyarakat.

Salah satu fungsi sastra yang lain sebagai suatu kesenian adalah fungsi emansipatif ketika sastra dilihat dari sudut pandang para kelompok karya seni “autonomous art” dimana kelompok seni ini memiliki posisi yang berseberangan dengan kelompok seni “mass art”. Kelompok seni “mass art” sendiri dipandang sebagai karakteristik utama budaya masyarakat kontemporer. Dengan demikian, sastra dalam konteks tersebut membuka peluang bagi sastra dan produk sastra untuk membentuk pemahaman baru tentang suatu hal yang telah terkonstuk dalam sebuah masyarakat dan menjadi suatu yang melekat dalam diri masyarakat tersebut sebagaimana potensi sastra yang dikemukakan oleh Adorno dan diterjemahkan secara bebas oleh ignatius Krisna Dharma dalam tulisannya “Sastra dan Imajinasi Masyarakat” bahwa:

Sastra memiliki kepekaan, imajinasi, dan pengertian memberi suara, wajah dan definisi baru baru kepada apa yang diterima sebagai hal umum dan biasa…efek emansipatoris dari kesenian dihasilkan oleh penolakannya terhadap bentuk tata dunia yang dominan..[3]

Selanjutnya Dharma menjelaskan bahwa potensi emansipasi sastra tersebut dapat menyingkap sesuatu pada awalnya diterima sebagai suatu kebenaran dan mencairkan suatu kebekuan pemahaman akan sesuatu. Sehingga, kebekuan pemahaman masyarakat akan dirinya dapat terbuka. Melalui media sastra ini, masyarakat dapat mengevaluasi kembali apa yang dianggap benar dalam pemahaman mereka sebelumnya. Dengan kata lain, sastra mampu menjadi suatu kekuatan nilai kritik bagi masyarakat yang memberikan visi baru terhadap hal-hal yang ada dalam masyarakat itu sendiri. Lebih jaun lagi , Siswanti[4] juga menegaskan fungsi lain sastra sebagai mediosphere yang dipakai untuk mengkomunikasikan ide-ide sehingga ide-ide tersebut bisa menjadi aksi yang efektif. Kedua fungsi dan peran sastra tersebut memiliki peran yang sangat signifikan dalam peyingkapan suatu pemahaman yang bersifat statis dan dominan dan membantu proses penyebaran suatu nilai hasil dari evaluasi kritis pemahaman masyarakat sehingga bisa menjadi suatu sistem pemahaman dan keyakinan massif yang kemudian menjadi kesadaran bersama (communal awareness) masyarakat.

Ketika masyarakat memiliki suatu pemahaman tentang hirarki sosial terhadap jenis kelamin yang berbeda (laki-laki dan perempuan) dan telah terkonstruk dimana sistem patriarkhi yang menjadi nilai   yang diagungkan, maka sastra bisa menjadi media kritik dan evaluasi dari nilai dan sistem sosial tersebut. Misalnya saja produk dari karya sastra tulis yang diduga berperan dalam investasi terhadap terjadinya subordinasi peran dan fungsi perempuan yang kemudian semakin diperkuat oleh tradisi sastra lisan yang memberikan kontribusi norma-norma yang berlaku dalam masyarakat  lokal terhadap perempuan. Contoh karya sastra yang bisa kita ambil dalam konteks pembahasan ini adalah bermunculannya karya-karya sastra tentang penggambaran sosok perempuan yang berbeda dari konstruksi pada umumnya dalam masyarakat yang ditulis baik oleh para penulis seiring dengan perkembangan sastra (terutama Indonesia) dan semakin diterimanya karya-karya sastra kontemporer.Karya-karya yang dihasilkan oleh Ayu Utami, Djenar Mahesa Ayu, Fira Basuki, Dewi Lestari  adalah contoh dari penulis-penulis sastra yang mencoba mengevaluasi konstruksi pemikiran masayarakat terhadap perempuan yang sebagian besar dlam bentuk novel. Gambaran sosok perempuan yang jauh dari stereotipe yang selama ini melekat pada perempuan seperti atribut lemah lembut, tidak mandiri, oarang kedua setelah laki-laki dan individu yang tidak memiliki hak memilih dalam hidup. Karya-karya sastra mereka lebih pada pemberontakan yang bersifat revolusioner terhadap suatu konstruk sosial terhadap kekuasaan sistem patriarkhi yang terefleksikan dalam karya-karya sastra sebelumnya dimana norma-norma kelelaki-lakian yang berlaku sebagai korban dari bias gender yang mengakar dimasyarakat.

Karya sastra para penulis perempuan tersebut menjadi alat alternatif dari penyebaran ide-ide baru tentang masalah-masalah bias gender di masayarakat dan lebih jauh lagi mengenai ide-ide feminisme. Novel “Perempuan Dititik Nol” adalah salah satu contoh dari karya sastra yang mencoba meyuarakan ideologi feminisme dimana sang penulis (Nawal El Saadawi) mengkritisi nilai-nilai konvensional tentang relasi antara laki-laki dan perempuan juga mengoreksi tentang konsepsi feminin dan maskulin yang secara sosial budaya telah terkonstruk. Seksualitas perempuan sebagai sesuatu yang pada awalnya merupakan sesuatu yang tabu menjadi bahasan utama dalam novel tersebut. Seksualitas yang selama ini masih lekat menjadi atribut perempuan. Disinilah sastra menjadi respon terhadap pengalaman dan pengamatan mendalam dari penulis tentang nilai-nilai yang menghasilkan ketimpangan gender dalam masyarakatnya. Selain itu, karya sastra juga menjadi suatu gambaran dari masayarakat tertentu  serta konstruksi nilai yang terdapat didalamnya sehingga bisa menjadi evaluasi sosial politik terhadap ideologi gender dan sistem sosial yang berlaku.

Isu utama yang dibahas dalam novel “Perempuan di Titik Nol” adalah sistem sosial masyarakat yang menganut sistem patriarkhi sebagai tatananan sosial masyarakat. Suatu sistem yang dipakai untuk menempatkan peran dan posisi perempuan. Dalam kerangka Marxist, konsep patriarkhi mencoba menghubungkan relasi sosial dengan proses produksi, subordinasi dan ekploitasi terutama subordinasi terhadap perempuan dan kekuatan struktur sosial laki-laki dan perempuan. Sistem sosial ini menjelaskan tentang aturan sosial yang merujuk pada aturan pihak laki-laki (bapak) dan dominasi secara kultural.[5] Dengan demikian menunjukkan bahwa dalam masyarakat terdapat perbedaan posisi struktural antara laki-laki dan perempuan dimana sistem produksi dan reproduksi menjadi acuan dasar konsep posisi struktural tersebut. Definisi lain dari sistem patriarkhi juga dikembangkan oleh Hartmann [6] bahwa sistem patriarkhi merupakan satu perangkat relasi sosial laki-laki dan perempuan yang bersifat hirarkhis dan berlandaskan pada kontrol laki-laki terhadap kekuatan buruh perempuan dan pembatasan pada seksualitas perempuan baik untuk kepentingan reproduksi perempuan maupun kepentingan yang memuaskan kebutuhan laki-laki. Dengan demikian, imajinasi dari gambaran suatu masyarakat yang muncul adalah konteks sosial masyarakat yang sarat dengan dikotomi laki-laki dan perempuan berdasarkan perbedaan seks dan gender. Dengan kata lain,  perbedaan antara seks dan gedner menjadi sangat penting untuk menjelaskan sistem nilai dan struktur sosial yang berlaku.

Kembali pada karya sastra dalam suatu kondisi sosial tertentu, Novel karya Nawal El Saadawi diatas merupakan suatu refleksi pemaknaan seksualitas dan posisi perempuan dalam kaitannya dengan kekuasaan posisi sosial laki-laki. Nawal dalam novelnya memunculkan penokohan dengan karakter pemberontak terhadap apa yang sudah diyakini masyarakat tentang “kebebasan” dan “hak” dari jenis kelamin perempuan dalam perspektif gender dimana Firdaus (tokoh utama) mencoba merekonstruksi kekuasaan tubuh perempuan yang berbeda dengan norma masyarakat dan nilai kesucian agama dalam suatu titik pembahasan mengenai privilege laki-laki dalam konteks pelacuran dan pernikahan. Selama ini, menurut Saadawi, seksualitas dalam norma masayarakat yang berlaku adalah privilege bagi laki-laki dalam konteks poligami. Selain itu, konsep kekuasaan dan dominasi laki-laki dalam ranah domestik juga terpancar dalam lembaga perkawinan seperti yang terdapat dalam paragrap yang dikutip dari novel tersebut sebagai berikut:[7]

” Semua perempuan adalah korban penipuan. Lelaki memaksakan penipuan kepada perempuan, dan kemudian menghukum mereka karena telah telah tertipu, menindas mereka ketingkat terbawah, dan menghukum mereka karena telah jatuh begitu rendah, mengikat mereka dalam perkawinan dan menghukum mereka dengan kerja kasar sepanjang umur mereka, atau menghantam mereka dengan penghinaan atau dengan pukulan”

“Kini saya sadari bahwa yang paling sedikit diperdayakan dari semua perempuan adalah pelacur. Perkawinan adalah lembaga yang dibangun atas penderitaan yang paling kejam untuk kaum perempuan” (h.126)

Apa yang berusaha disajikan dalam paragrap tersebut adalah kritik tajam terhadap berbagai aspek kehidupan sosial (publik) dalam perspektif patriarhkal yang masuk kedalam ranah domestik dan personal bahkan merambah ke ranah penafsiran teks-teks agama dalam masayrakat yang mengagungkan nilai-nilai maskulinitas. Disinilah penulis menunjukkan kebebasan berpikirnya dalam melihat dan merasakan pengalaman dunianya yang kemudian sastra menjustifikasi pemikiran penulis juga menjadi mediasi bagi sosialisasi pemikiran tersebut.

Penulis lain yang mencoba melakukan resistensi terhadap isu-isu stereotype terhadap perempuan adalah penulis Ayu Utami dimana dalam novel-novelnya ia banyak mengkritik posisi perempuan dalam masayrakat yang seringkali dijadikan objek laki-laki dalam segala aspek terutama seksual. Ia banyak menggambarkan sosok perempuan yang tidak lagi lemah seperti yang sudah dikonstruksikan oleh masyrakat selama ini,akan tetapi dalam pandangan Ayu Utami bahwa perempuan juga harus ditempatkan sebagai subjek karena mereka bisa menjadi mandiri sebagaimana laki-laki. Apa yang dilakukan oleh penulis novel ini adalah suatu upaya pembogkaran terhadap norma sosial  yang bersifat status-quo terhadap stereotype hubungan laki-laki dan perempuan dan bagaimana seharusnya hal itu dirubah dan diberlakukan sebagaimana mestinya dimana laki-laki dan perempuan tidak diperlakukan secara berbeda dalam sistem sosial yang berlaku.

Karya sastra dalam bentuk tradisi lisan pun kadangkala menjadi alat untuk menggambarkan bagaimana sesuatu dalam masyarakat termasuk nilai maupun norma yang dijunjung oleh suatu masyarakat. Tradisi Lisan masyarakat Bali, misalnya, membuka ruang bagi interpretasi terhadap yang akan mempengaruhi tidak hanya pada pengisahan dalam seni akan tetapi juga terhadap keyakinan dan pemahaman orang –orang yang terlibat didalamnya. Dongeng, mitologi dan cerita dalam tradisi lisan sangat dipengaruhi oleh penutur yang membawa “kepentingan” masing-masing (motif-motifideologis). Sehingga, karya yang dihasilkan dapat menjadi karya sastra yang menguntungkan ketika suatu pesan dari penutur dengan latar belakang pemikirannya yang ingin disampaikan kepada masyarakat luas. Dalam wilayah seni ini, proses kreatifitas penutur dituntut. Dalam masyarakat Bali, mitologi calon Arang memiliki beberapa versi dalam tradisi lisan. Disini berbagai versi yang sarat kepentingan masuk dlam penokohan dan penggamabaran sosok serta cerita dari Calon Arang. Akan tetapi, perbedaan versi Calon Arang tidak lepas dari pertanggungjawaban sang penutur dimana keterbukaan pemikiran juga didialogkan dengan orang yang menikmati karya  tersebut. Artinya, dalam karya sastra, nilai-nilai sosial yang berlaku tidak lepas begitu saja ketika sastra dijadikan sebagai media alternatif untuk penyebaran ide maupun ideologi tertentu.

Meskipun ada beberapa teori yang menjelaskan fungsi sastra dan ada beberapa upaya yang menghubungkan karya sastra dengan hal-hal diluar karya itu sendiri, akan tetapi disiplin ilmu yang membahas tentang kritik sastra merumuskan tiga hal penting yang patut diperhatikan sebagai  berikut:[8]

1. Karya sastra harus memiliki signifikansi yang dapat menembus ruang dan waktu (spaceless dan timeless). Artinya, karya tersebut tidak terbatas untuk waktu tertentu saja dan materi yang ditulis merupakan hal-hal yang bersifat tetap berkaitan dengan sifat-sifat manusia
2. Dengan posisi sastra yang bersifat menembus ruang dan waktu, maka karya  tersebut dipandang memiliki makna tersendiri dan tidak perlu dikaitkan dengan konteks apapun, baik konteks sosial politik, sejarah sastra maupun biografi pengarangnya.Oleh karena itu, pembacan sastra hanya membutuhkan analisa bahasa. Unsur-unsur diluar bahasa menjadi tidak penting lagi dalam hal ini.
3. Pembacaan sastra yang dilakukan bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kehidupan dan menyebarkan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan.

Dengan adanya perumusan beberapa aspek lain dari pembahasan sastra tersebut, terdapat paradoksal dalam pemaknaan karya sastra sendiri serta fungsi dari karya sastra. Akan tetapi terlepas dari dua kutub yang saling berkontribusi dalam wilayah kesenian yang berbentuk karya sastra, harus diakui bahwa konteks diluar sastra juga berperan dalam perubahan bentuk dalam materi dari suatu karya sastra serta bentuk-bentuk karya sastra itu sendiri. Terbukti ketika suatu kondisi sosial dan ideologi tertentu ada dalam masayarakat (sebagaimana yang sudah dipaparkan sebelumnya), para seniman karya sastra mencoba merespon dan merefleksikan ide-ide mereka melalui sastra itu sendiri.Dengan demikian, jika dikaitkan dengan isu-siu gender, sastra dapat menjadi cerminan dan refleksi dari isu-isu gender yang muncul dalam masayarakat dan menjadi media koreksi dan evaluasi baik untuk merombak pemahaman yang ada maupun semakin memperkuat pemahaman tentang gender itu sendiri yang mempertimbangkan konteks sosio-kultural dimana karya sastra tersebut dihasilkan. Yang harus digarisbawahi dari seluruh paparan ini adalah bahwa makna  karya sastra merupakan suatu hasil dari interpretasi yang dikonstruk baik oleh penulis maupun pembaca dengan latar belakang (ideologi, politik dan sosial budaya) yang dibawa oleh masing-masing pihak.

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[1]Suwardi Endraswara dalam bukunya Metodologi Penelitian Sastra (Penerbit Pustaka Widyatama; Yogyakarta; 2004,h.81) mengutip pemikiran Levin yang diambil dalam buku yang ditulis oleh  Elizabet dan Tom Burns yang berjudul Sociology of Literature and Drama ( Penguin Books;Australia; 1973)h.31.

[2] ibid

[3] Ignatius Krishna Dharma, Sastra Imajinasi Masyarakat dalam Sastra Interdisipliner, Menyandingkan Sastra dan Disiplin Ilmu Sosial (Yogyakarta. Penerbit Qalam; 2003) h.68-69

[4]Endriani Dwi Siswanti, “Perempuan di Titik Nol’ Perlawanan perempuan melawan tatanan konservatif , Jurnal Perempuan (edisi 30) (Jakarta. YJP; 2003) h.25

[5] Mitchell (1974), Millet (1971), Rich (1977) dalam Taula Gordon, Feminist Mother (New York. New York University Press; 1990) h. 9

4.Ibid,  Heidi  Hartman membahas konsep system patriarkhi dalam kerangka Marxist dalam the Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism’, in Capital and Class, no.8, Summer (1979) dan The  Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism : A Debate on Class and Patriarchy (1981).

[7] Nawal El Saadawi, Perempuan Dititik Nol (Jakarta; Yayasan Obor Indonesia; 2002)

[8] Muh Arif Rokhman, Cultural Materialism Dalam Kajian Sastra dalam Sastra Interdisipliner, Menyandingkan Sastra dan Disiplin Ilmu Sosial (Yogyakarta. Penerbit Qalam; 2003)h.29

islam,politics and muslim country

SUFISM AND POLITICS; A HISTORICAL RECORD ON RELIGIOUS PLURALISM OF MOSLEM POLITICS IN INDONESIAN CONTEXT

Abstract

Fenomena keragaman pemahaman keagamaan dalam konteks politik menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dalam sejarah politik Muslim diberbagai belahan dunia termasuk Indonesia. Ideologi yang dibangun dari nilai-nilai ajaran agama menjadi motor dan perangkat yang signifikan bagi kelompok-kelompok agama untuk memperluas spectrum gerakan dari ranah spiritual ke ranah politik. Hal ini pada konteks waktu dan daerah tertentu menjadi hal yang tidak bisa dihindari keberadaannya. Kelompok Sufi adalah salah satu contoh yang melakukan perluasan spectrum spiritual ke spectrum politik

1. A. Introduction

It is indisputable that Sufism and its spiritual exercise, so-called tarekat, play significant role in development of Islam tradition and the history of Islamic civilization. In Indonesia, particularly, it contributes significantly to the process of spreading Islam (Islamization). John, as quoted by Zulkifly in his book Sufism in Java, described the major role of Sufi in Indonesia.  He puts it in this way:

“It (Sufism) was directly involved in the spread of Islam to Indonesia, it played a significant part of the social organization of Indonesian port towns, and it was the specific nature of Sufism which facilitated the absorption of non Moslem communities into folded of Islam”[1]

In addition, his basic assumption of Sufis role in Indonesia is that Sufi missionaries were the motor of the spreading of Islam supported by one factor of the similarity between Sufism and pre-Islamic Indonesian culture beside they did peacefully.[2] Not only on that area Sufis and tarekat get involved but also in some aspects of life such as economics and education.

Another interesting thing that should not be overlooked is that Sufism or tarekat role in politics. Although it has been already assumed that Sufism ‘s concern, originally, is everything related to life here after (here after-oriented) and the piety, in fact, some cases in certain parts of the world show the dynamic transition of Sufism orientation indicating its response toward politics. The cases proved that Sufism and tarekat not only concern with the spiritual matter but also public matters particularly politics. Tarekat Badawiyah in Egypt, as one interesting example, got involved in crusade war. Naqsabandiyah became the mobilizer of Kurdi nationalism movement. Another fact shows that in Indonesia tarekat Qodiriyah Naqsabandiyah also became the hidden motor of Banten peasant revolt in 1886.

In this article, basically, I’m concerned much with the Sufism and tarekat response toward politics rather than its other roles besides proposing basic assumption that tarekat plays different role in each time. Furthermore, I also raise two basic questions on this matter. First, why in certain time they got involved or responded to politics seems that it out of their original orientation. Second, why do they, in particular circumstances, can be a motor for collective action?

1. B. Sufism, Tarekat and Politics in Indonesia

Sufism, here, I defined broader than as Moslem mysticism focusing on spiritual exercising only; it is defined also as mystical movement within Islam. Some may be called as a Sufi if she or he dedicates him or herself after uniting with the creator or God.[3] The practice of spiritual exercise in this Sufi organization is so called tarekat in which I focus much on this term in the next discussion.

As my point of departure, it is better to defined, etymologically and terminologically, tarekat or thariqoh. The name of tarekat is Arabic in origin, being derived from the word thoriqoh meaning “main road or path”. Terminologically, then, it can be defined as a way used specially to achieve certain goal. Other words we may say that a Sufi has to pass through a certain way (tarekat) to get closer to Allah. Through tarekat, Moslems defend their sovereignty and strengthen their brotherhood in form of spiritual organization. Basically, the basic foundation of Sufism and tarekat are the same as syariah’s including the way how to get closer to the God and their hope of the God bless. Therefore, to achieve those aims, a Sufi should pass through a long way (thariqoh) and a systematical maqom (stations).

As the contrary of that aforementioned fact, not all Sufis belong to a certain group of tarekat. It, in general, can be classified into two groups. Those who are affiliated with Sufi order and those who are not affiliated with Sufi order. This notion is in accord with Abubakar Atjeh theory as quoted by Zulkifli, he pointed out that there are two classification of Sufi, “the first is independent ulama’ who do not follow a certain Sufi order which ties their students and brings them into a school of Sufi doctrine. These Sufi figures are known for their works which are regarded as special features in producing a standpoint in the field of Sufism. The other, is the Sufis who are known for their works which are found to certain teachings or Sufi orders which are followed and propagated as their disciples. Although changes may occur in the order, its principles remain stable as were established by the founder.[4]

Sufism’s affiliates or follower should be under a master’s supervision, so called a mursyid, as the mediator between the followers or the murids and the God. Therefore, the role of mursyid is significant in this process. Each tarekat has its own central figure. Here, the sacred position of the mursyid raises that may lead to the obedience among the murids. Other words, we may say that word and the order including their advice become powerful. Sufism and tarekat, basically, is 12^th century phenomenon. However, it has been emerged over a decade that the history of Islam notes. Some scholars contribute in this issue. Gisenan in Zulkifli, for instance, outlines two mainstreams of Sufism development. According to him, Sufism had appeared since the early centuries after the Prophet Muhammad death that is the individuals who felt a call to the mystical or devotional life. Secondly, it led to a group of Moslem coming together in the sufi brotherhoods to follow one of the great saints of medieval Islam.[5]

Rahman[6] theorized that in the first two decade Sufism was an individual phenomenon. In line with, nevertheless, the development of Islamic formal law discourse and theology, it also developed into an institution with its mass power. The institutional process of Sufism then was started by gathering activities among Moslems in any places. They used to do the activities to discuss religious matters including doing spiritual exercises. Hence, from the very beginning their focus was obviously just to emphasize personal spirituality and piety rather than the details of fiqh. When the followers number became larger, the Sufis led them into certain traditional practices of spirituality in form of a tarekat group depended on the mursyids own way chosen. It became the first stage that Sufi being compartmentalized as some tarekat.

Sufism reaches its definitive development (muktamad) around 12C and 13C. During that period some Sufi leaders spread their teachings to some parts of Moslem world. Their success in supervising tarekat and building educational institution also influenced the way people think of it as well as their motivation to be the followers.

Dowel portrayed the development of Sufism phenomena in Islam in different way. He emphasized it as an illegal creation of the Sufis toward the basic message of Islam.[7] He put it as follows:

“Islam is the way we know it through the Koran, the Hadiths, and the Sira (biography of the prophet). The tasawuf, as sufism as you say, (…) arrived during certain period of Islamic history. During the time of rasidun caliphs, power and sanctity went together. With the coming of the Omayyads, sanctity began to diminish. It was at the moment, then, that voices were raised to bring people back top the right path. This movement gradually transformed itself afterward, until  it pretended that beyond the clear information contained in the Koran and the sunna, there were secrets which the prophet left only to certain of his closest followers, and that these had since undertaken to transmit them. It is simply a deviation. Islam is what is found in the Koran and Hadith. It is in the comportment of the prophet as related by his companions, and it is nothing else.

In addition, Annida Ennifeir, one of the founders of the Tunisian movement as quoted by Dowel stated that Sufism trapped Moslems in immobility situation. This argument is in line with what is proposed by Mulkhan in his book “Bisnis Kaum Sufi” that Sufism seems to lead Moslems into esoterical interest in which become weak in dynamic world with its development.

The debate about Sufi and tarekat above become the internal conflict within Moslems that is influenced by their difference way in seeing and understanding their religion in terms of how to get closer to the God or may be something else related to hereafter goal.

The conflict also rises when Sufism has to be in contrast to elite jurist since they have difference tendency although they have the same basic foundation I stated above. On one side, as Fazlur Rahman said in his book Islam, Sufism faced a confusing tendency to compromise with the beliefs mass popular practice that had just converted. On the other side, elite jurist tended to support the ruler with its jurisprudential movement. Therefore, in that situation, violent reaction may emerge from Sufis as three basic reasons they hold. First, The theories which perceive that ulama are influenced by non-Moslem traditions. Second, the basic idea of Islam including other religions which is pure and orthodox is not compatible with previous ideas. Last, The prophet, himself, provided the paradigm of Sufism development. Moreover, the elite’s attention do not attached on lower class interests also allied with the Sufism’s reason to react toward elite jurists.

Hence, Sufism already experienced an internal conflict within Islam itself since its emergence and raises a debate among Moslem scholars, jurists and the Sufis. It is a possibility that the internal conflict may be one of the factors of the transition role and Sufism movement. However, it is not to say that it is the only factor of Sufis response toward politics in which other factors may also contributed such as economics.

Moving to another point related to Sufism development in Indonesian context, will lead us to another feature of Sufism response toward politics during its development. It is commonly noted historically that Sufism and its tarekat form came to Indonesia along with the coming of Islam trough the process of Islamization of indigenous people as I have stated earlier. As a prove, some saints- so called wali sanga”– played as political leaders beside as religious leaders in Java during the islamization process. Some Sufis also became the supervisors of the kings since the legitimacy of Sufis was urgent in their governance.  Nevertheless, it is second conflict also appeared when the dividing perfective emerged between the Sufis and the kings. The kings, consequently, regard the Sufis as their radical opposite of their governance politically since the Sufis did not support them. As the irony of the fact, the people obeyed the Sufis more than the kings due to their belief on them religiously. In that position the kings were afraid if they would lead the people’s obedience into a rebellion. From that moment, radicalism of tarekat actually devoted to Sufism.

In terms of external conflict that leads to Sufis interference on politics was the colonialism. After the passage of time of its ritual concern only, its political response and its radicalism emerged when the colonial occupied Indonesia. It was when the colonial power began to repress the people that resulted in two dimensions of people defense, people’s way of thinking in terms of the doctrine about non-Moslems, creating the concept of jihad among ulama to fight against the infidels, as well as their movement on one hand and respond directly toward colonial on behalf of their opposite (open opposite or close opposite), on the other.

In terms of movement, it is noteworthy that people responded openly in form of involving in the battle with the weapons. Another group, still, tended to choose be the close opposite in close-response way or movement- represented commonly by some ulama and Sufi leaders- in which they tried to do uzlah. [8] Some of them devoted their life to education and tarekat activity where they could build Islamic educational institution such as pesantren.[9] Despite their success in building those institutions (pesantren), their spiritual exercises or tarekat also experienced development since 19 century. By that time, radicalism and political response of Sufism and tarekat emerged. Two significant examples of how both spiritual exercises involved within politics are Paderi movement and the actor behind peasant revolt in Banten in 1888.

Started from illustrating Paderi movement, it was initially an internal conflict within Moslem community which is separated into two factions. One faction proposed a purification of Islam evolutionarily and peacefully. By contrast, another faction wanted a fully and radical purification. This rebuttal led to an internal war between two factions. However, the colonial’s interference turned the war into an alliance fighting against the colonial.

As well as Paderi movement above, the role of ulama and Sufis in Banten revolt in 1988 should be put into account. What is more, historically banten sultanate was built in line with Islam wide spreading process. Therefore, the ulama’s role in the governance was crucial. The clear explanation of tarekat in Banten in terms of politics was in a battle with the colonial, so-called geger cilegon. It happened in 9^th July 1888 motored by some ulama such as Haji Abdul Karim, Haji Tubagus Ismail, Haji Marzuki and Haji Wasid. Through tarekat Kadiriyah teaching, they also encouraged people to fight against the colonial by spirit of jihad since they are infidels. The concept of jihad that they thought was fighting against infidels was a great obligation for Moslems. If they died in war, their place in hereafter would be the paradise. Therefore  Sabil War issue raised during that time.

Through pesantren, the tarekat discussion became political discussion. Not only in pesantren they built the alliance, but also in other places such at mosque and houses. However, the original spiritual exercise of dzikir (reciting religious words) still became the consistent activity. The influence of the leaders of the tarekat could gather mass power since the number of the followers increased sharply including the local government of Java when the governor of Serang, Haji. R. A. Prawiranegara became the follower of tarekat Kadiriyah.

During the dzikir activities the leaders escalated the spirit of struggle of the people through Sabil War story. They encouraged people to face the Dutch, as the colonial country in Banten at that time, in war bravely. Not only people in that place responded the encouragement, but also other ulama from Tagerang, Bogor and Jakarta agreed to move.

That phenomenon made the Dutch worried and paid attention much on the activity which was called by tarekat since previous case showed ulama of certain tarekat or the followers of certain tarekat were associated with Moslem’s defense toward the Dutch. Take for example; what happened in South kalimantan in 1859-1863, ulama led a revolt under their motto “Beratib Beamal”.

The most threatened tarekat in the eyes of the Dutch was tarekat Naksyabandiyah and tarekat Qodiriyah, the combination of these two tarekat or their branches. According to the Ducth, they were a radical tarekat since their emergence may put their colonial process in danger. Therefore they controlled its activities rigidly.

Putting those two tarekat movements in two dimensions aspects of life, it will lead me to my basic inquiries about tarekat power in politics and their changing concern from the spiritual development and piety of Moslems into political spectrum. By proposing the thesis statement stating earlier, I come to a discussion that a tarekat may be a political power in certain condition and certain time.

As the first departure of my discussion in this article is how ideology becomes the basic motor of their movement whether in internal conflict with the King or ulama including the jurist. If those group action is in confront with them, it may put their position become Sufis opposite in terms of religious beliefs. As the external case, such as colonial, the ideology Sufi holding is that the colonial people were infidels that must be opposed. In this case they used the ideology “jihad” and “perang sabil” related to the ideology of life hereafter. To borrow Moaddel’s theory of “ideology as episodic discourse” stating that ideology just works and fits in the specific period of time, seems that this theory fit with the case of the role of Sufis’ ideology in relating their response toward politics. [10]

From this point, we can see the importance of an ideology to influence a group to move. In addition the opportunity to move and act by that time was conducive to force Sufis to move together with the people. Quoting the definition of political opportunity proposed by Rasler [11] that concession and repression from a government regime is the significant factor for people to move. Those two conditions escalate the protest action or protest behavior whether violently or non-violently. Therefore, situating that definition on Sufis and tarekat movement shows, I my self argue, an empirical link. As the explanation, Banten case is that local government supported by the Dutch monopolized the economy and restructured the political system in form of modernization. That action repressed the people (especially peasant group) economically and politically. What is more, most of them were tarekat followers. With the support from the Sufis, as their religious leaders that they believed and respected much, including the ideology they hold that the Dutch were infidels, they moved to revolt in 1888. Although it just lasted only five days, it explained that ideology will lead a group to act as well as showing that Sufis concern moved to political arena.

In general, some cases related to some tarekats in politics reveal a significant transition of Sufism and tarekats role and their initial concerns. However, it is not to say that they change their original orientation. It is just a case of the need of condition to broaden the basic aims. This also copes with my hypothesis that Sufis play different role in each time in accord with my first basic inquiries on this matter explaining why they change their original orientation in certain time. Another thing left is the power of Sufis and tarekat leaders in mobilizing people or their followers should be also considered.  I am not saying that, the followers fully obeyed their tarekat leaders but the teachings that they taught gradually became an ideology supported by the charismatic figure of the leaders. In addition, the alliance that they can work together was the Sufis group in opposing the regime in which most of the followers were mass-based such as workers and peasants. In fact, their total number was larger than government members or as equal as the colonial’s.

By the passage of time, the pattern of sufis’ political response changes a little bit. Certain tarekat such as tarekat Qodiriyyah –Naqsabandiyah, for instance, focus on the treatment of drug abusers and tarekat sadzaliyah in Ploso Jombang focusing also on people’s welfare economically. It means that their role for this time being is that what they think should be done according to the need without ignoring their main focus that is the spiritual exercises and piety of the followers.

C. Conclusion

To sum up, sufism and tarekat play their roles differently in each times in all aspects of life. It also shows that they have main orientation in their life namely spiritual development to get closer to the God. Indeed, the way the manifest their main goal does not mean that keep their bodies, their attention and their feeling away from the real world where they are living now as some Sufis, themselves, state that being Sufis does not mean to be trapped in alien world and have no attention to the real one. Abah Anom, for example, the leader of tarekat Qodiriyah-Naqsabandiyah in pesantren Suryalaya still gives his response to Indonesian condition currently. Therefore, it proves that he pays attention to outside his sufis ‘world including politics. Other words, I may conclude that Sufis has interesting action changing anytime as well as any condition. Nonetheless, in certain cases they are regarded as radical movement whether in Indonesia or other parts of the world. The judgment, still, is ongoing process since each group has its own interests to name them as radical movement or not. Sufism and tarekat, still, are one of feature of Moslem understanding of their religious doctrines to reach and to get closer to the God.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Attar, Farida Al-Din, Muslim Saints and Mystics, 1996, The Penguin Group, England

Beith, A. F., Sosialisme Kerakyatan yang Islami, Bagian Ideologi, 2001, yayasan Al-Munawwarah.

Brown, Daniel, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought, !999, Cambridge, England

Dowell, William and Francois Burgat, The Islamic Movement in North Africa, 1997, University of Texas, USA

Hadi,  Abdul, Tasawuf Yang Tertindas, 2001, Paramadina, Jakarta

Kartodirdjo, Sartono, The Peasant Revolt of Banten in 1888, 1996, Gravenhage Martinus Hoff, Leiden

Mansor, Moaddel, Ideology as Episodic Discourse: The Case of Iranian Revolution, American Sociological review, Volume 57, issue 3 (Jun, 1992), p.  353-379

Mulyati, Sri, Abah Anom’s responses to current Islamic Issues in Indonesia, a paper presented at international conference on sufism and the ‘modern in Islam, September 4-6, 2003, Bogor, Indonesia

Rahman, Islam (trans. Edition), 2003, Pustaka Hidayah, Bandung

Rasler, Karen, Concession, Repression and Political Protest in The Iranian Revolution, Vol. 61, isssue 1, P. 132- 152

Zulkifli, Sufism in Java, The Role of Pesantren in The Maintenance of Sufism in Java, 2002, INIS, Jakarta

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[1] Zulkifli, Sufism in Java, the Role of Pesantren in the Maintenance of Sufism in Java (Jakarta. INIS:  2002) p. 13

[2] Zulkifli, sufism in Java………….. , p. 7

[3] Farida all-Din Attar, Saints and Mystics, episodes from the Tazkira al-Auliya (England, The Penguin Group: 2002)

[4] Zulkifli, sufism in Java………….. , p. 17

[5] Zulkifli, sufism in Java………, p.5

[6] Fazlur Rahman, Islam (trans. Edition) (Bandung,  Pustaka Hidayah: 2003)

[7]William Dowell and Francois Burgat, The Islamic Movement in North Africa (USA, University of Texas: 1997) p.8. The notion is the result of William Dowell’s interview with a young dissident of the Chebiba Islamiyya that fot the time being becomes the leader of legalistic group in Morocco, Abdallah Benkirane. The interview was conducted in Rabat Sale in October 1987.

[8] This term is used to reflect a certain way to avoid the colonial government including refusing their alliance offering

[9] One of places where a moslem can learn islamic teachings deeper.

[10] Moaddel Mansor, Ideology as Episodic Discourse: The Case of Iranian Revolution (American Sociological review: 1992) Vol: 57, issue 3  P.  353-379

[11] Karen Rasler, Concession, Repression and Political Protest in The Iranian Revolution, (Vol. 61, issue 1) P. 132- 152